Engine structure internal combustion It is known to the wide mass of motorists. But, here's not all knowing what details are installed in the motor, they know their location and principle of operation. To fully understand the automotive engine device you need to see the cut power aggregate.
Engine operation in the context is presented in this video footage
Engine work
What to understand the location of the parts of the automotive engine and before showing the engine in the context, it is necessary to understand the principle of operation of the motor. So, consider what drives the wheel of the car.
Fuel, which is located in the gas tank using the fuel pump is supplied to the nozzles or carburetor. It is worth noting that the fuel is undergoing such an important stage, as a filtering fuel cell that stops impurities and alien elements, which should not get into the combustion chamber.
After pressing the accelerator pedal, the electronic control unit gives the command to a fuel in the intake manifold. For carburetor DVS - the gas pedal is tied to the carburetor and the more pressure goes to the pedal, the more fuel pour into the combustion chamber.
Further, the air is served from the second side, passing air filter And choke. The larger the valve opens, the more air will go directly in the intake manifold, where the air-fuel mixture is formed.
In the collector, the air-fuel mixture is evenly separated between the cylinders and alternately flows through the inlet valves in the combustion chamber. When the piston moves in VTM, the pressure of the mixture and the ignition candle forms a spark that fills fuel. From this detonation and explosion, the piston begins to move down in NMT.
The movement of the piston is passed to the connecting rod, which is attached to the crankshaft and puts it into action. So, makes every piston. The faster the pistons move, the greater the crankshaft turnover.
After the air-fuel mixture is burned, an exhaust valve opens, which produces spent gases to the exhaust manifold, and then through the exhaust system outward. On the modern cars, part of the exhaust gases helps the engine work, since the turbocharger leads, which increases the power of the DVS.
It is also worth noting that on modern engines do not do without a cooling system, the fluid of which circulates through the cooling shirt and podcast spaceWhat provides a permanent operating temperature.
Engine in section
Now you can consider how ICA looks like in the context. For greater clarity and clarity, consider the VAZ engine in the context, with which most motorists are familiar.
The diagram presents the VAZ 2121 engine in the longitudinal section:
1. Crankshaft; 2. Liner of the root bearing of the crankshaft; 3. Crankshaft Star; 4. Front of the crankshaft seal; 5. Crankshaft pulley; 6. Ratchet; 7. Cover of the drive mechanism of gas distribution; 8. Cooling fluid and generator drive belt; 9. The pulley of the generator; 10. Star of the oil pump drive, fuel pump and ignition distributor; 11. Oil pump drive roller, fuel pump and ignition distributor; 12. Fan cooling system; 13. Cylinders block; 14. Cylinder head; 15. Chain of the drive mechanism of gas distribution; 16. Star distribution Vala.; 17. Exhaust valve; 18. Inlet valve; 19. Bearing housing of the camshaft; 20. Distributional; 21. Valve drive lever; 22. Cylinder head cover; 23. Sensor of the coolant temperature pointer; 24. Ignition Candle; 25. Piston; 26. Piston finger; 27. The holder of the rear seal of the crankshaft; 28. Stubborn seafling of the crankshaft; 29. Flywheel; 30. Upper compression ring; 31. Lower compression ring; 32. Oillennium ring; 33. Front clutch crankcase; 34. Oil Carter; 35. Front support for the power unit; 36. Schitun; 37. Front support bracket; 38. Power unit; 39. Rear support of the power unit.
In addition to the inline location of the engine cylinders, as shown in the circuit above there are an internal combustion engine with a V- and W-shaped position of the piston mechanism. Consider the W-shaped motor in the context on the example of the AUDI power unit. Cylinders in DVS are located so that if you look at the engine in front, it is formed english letter W.
These engines have increased power and are used on sports cars. This system was proposed japanese manufacturer Subaru, but because of high expellation Fuel did not receive broad and mass use.
V- and W-shaped DVS have increased power and torque, which makes their sports orientation. The only disadvantage of such a design is that such power aggregates consume a significant amount of fuel.
With the development of the automotive industry, General Motors suggested a cooler system of half of the cylinders. So, these non-working cylinders are powered by only when it is necessary to increase the power or quickly dispersed the car.
Such a system made it possible to significantly save fuel in everyday use. vehicle. This feature is tied to the electronic motor control unit, because it adjusts when all cylinders need to use, and when they are not needed.
Output
The principle of engine operation is quite simple. So, if you look at the incision of the engine and understand the location of the parts can be easily sorted out with the device device, as well as the sequence of its work process.
The options for the location of the engine parts are quite a lot and each automaker itself decides how to position the cylinders how many of them will be, as well as the injection system to install. All this gives the design features and characteristics of the motor.
In this article, let's talk about the engine of internal combustion engine, we learn the principle of its work. Consider it in the context. Despite the fact that the internal combustion engine was invented for a very long time, but it still enjoys great popularity. True for a large amount of time the design of the internal combustion engine has undergone various changes.
The efforts of engineers are constantly aimed at facilitating the weight of the engine, improving efficiency, increasing power, as well as reduced emissions harmful substances.
Engines are gasoline and diesel. Also there are rotary and gas turbine engines that are used much less often. We will talk about them in other articles.
By the location of cylinders, the internal, V-shaped and oxidized. By the number of cylinders 2,4,6,8,10,12,16. There are also 5 cylinder internal combustion engines.
Each layout has its advantages for example, in-line 6-cylinder engine is well balanced, but is inclined to overheating. V- vol different engines Another advantage they take less place under the hood, but it makes it difficult for maintenance due to limited access. Previously, there were also row 8 cylinder engines most likely they did not become due to a strong tendency to overheating and they occupied a lot of space under the hood.
By type of operation, two types are: two clocks and four clocks. Two-stroke internal combustion engines are mainly used on motorcycles. In cars, 4 clock engines were almost always used.
DVS device
Consider the engine in the context
The internal combustion engine consists of the following components and auxiliary systems.
1) Cylinder block. The cylinder block is the main body of the engine in which the piston works occurs. It usually consists of cast iron and has a cooling jacket for cooling.
2) GRM mechanism. The gas distribution mechanism regulates the supply of fuel and air mixture and discharge exhaust gases. With camshaft camshafts that affect the valve springs. Valves open either, closed depending on the engine's tact. When opening ink valves, cylinders are filled with fuel and air mixture. When opening the exhaust valves, the exhaust gases take place.
4) CSM-crystal-connecting mechanism. Thanks to the transmission of the energy of the connecting rod to the crankshaft, useful work is performed.
5) Oil pallet. In the oil pan is the engine oil which is used by the lubrication system for lubricating bearings and components of the internal combustion system.
6) cooling system. Thanks to the cooling system, the internal combustion engine maintains the optimum temperature. The cooling system consists of: pump, radiator, thermostat, cooling nozzles, and a cooling shirt.
7) Lubricant system. The lubricant system is used to protect the engine components from previously temporary wear. Also thanks motor Oil Internal combustion engine, cooling and corrosion protection occurs. The lubrication system consists of: oil pump, oil filter, oil highways and oil pallet.
8) Power system. The power system provides timely fuel supply. It differs in 3 types of carburetor, monofry and injector.
Find out more detail that the carburetor or injector can be better.
In the carburetor, the fuel and air mixture is prepared in the carburetor for subsequent feed. The carburetor has a mechanical fuel pump.
MONOVPRYSK This is essentially moving from the carburetor to the injector or intermediate. Thanks to the control unit, one single nozzle is given a command of the required quantity of fuel.
Injector. Injection fuel systems possess. ECU-electronic control unit, nozzles, fuel ramp. Thanks to the commands of the ECU on the nozzles, a signal is given about how much fuel is currently necessary. About the ECU in more detail.
To date, these are the most common fuel systems. Since they have a number of advantages. Efficiency, environmental friendliness and best return compared to the monovproma and carburetor.
There is also a direct fuel injection. Where the nozzles are injected into the fuel directly into the combustion chamber, not often used because of a more complex design and less reliability compared to the distribution injection. The advantage of such a design in better economy and environmental friendliness.
9) Ignition system. The ignition system is used to ignite the fuel and air mixture. Consists of high-voltage wires, ignition coils, spark plugs. Starter starts the internal combustion engine. For more information about the starter, you can learn by clicking on the link.
10) flywheel. The main task of the flywheel is the launch of the DVS using the starter through the crankshaft.
Principle of operation
Internal combustion engine makes 4 cycles or tact.
1) inlet. At this stage, the inlet of the fuel and air mixture occurs.
2) compression. During compression, the fuel and air mixture is compressed.
3) Working. The piston under the pressure of gases is sent to the NMT (lower dead point). The piston transmits energy to the rod, then the crankshaft energy is transmitted through the connecting rod. Thus, the energy of gases is exchanged for useful mechanical work.
4) issue. The piston is sent up. Exhaust valves open to release decay products.
Innovation of the internal combustion engine
1) The use of Lasers to Fuel ignition. Compared to ignition candles, lasers will be easier to adjust the ignition angle and will be high power. Conventional candles with a strong spark quickly fail.
2) FREEVALVE technology This technology implies the engine without camshafts. Instead of camshafts, the valves control individual drives to each valve. Ecology and economy of such DVS above. The technology is designed by a subsidiary Koniesseg and has a similar name FreeValve. Technology so far raw, but has already demonstrated a number of advantages. What will happen next time will show.
3) Separation of engines on the cold and hot parts. The essence of the technology is that the engine is divided into two parts. In the cold, the inlet and compression will occur since these stages will more effectively happen in the cold part. Thanks to this technology, engineers promise performance improvement by 30-40%. In the hot part there will be ignition and exhaust.
And what future technologies of the internal combustion engine you have heard will definitely share it in the comments.
The invention of the internal combustion engine allowed humanity in developing to step significantly forward. Now engines that are used to perform useful work energy released during fuel combustion are used in many spheres of human activity. But the most spread of these engines were in transport.
All power plants consist of mechanisms, nodes and systems that interact with each other provide the transformation of the energy released during the combustion of flammable products into the rotational motion of the crankshaft. It is this movement and is its useful work.
In order to be clearer, it should be understood with the principle of operation of the force of the internal combustion.
Principle of operation
When combustion of a combustible mixture consisting of flammable products and air, more energy is released. Moreover, at the time of the ignition of the mixture, it increases significantly in the amount, the pressure in the epicenter of ignition increases, in fact, there is a small explosion with the release of energy. This process is taken as the basis.
If the combustion is produced in a closed space - the pressure resulting during combustion will be pressed on the walls of this space. If one of the walls make movable, then the pressure, trying to increase the amount of closed space, will move this wall. If you attach some rod to this wall, then it will already perform a mechanical work - moving, it will push this rod. By connecting the rod with a crank, when moving, it will make the crank crank relative to its axis.
This is the principle of operation of a power unit with internal combustion - there is a closed space (cylinder sleeve) with a single moving wall (piston). The wall of the rod (connecting rod) is associated with a crank (crankshaft). Then the opposite action is made - a crank, making a full turn around the axis, pushes the wall with a rod and returns back.
But this is only the principle of working with explanation on simple components. In fact, the process looks somewhat more complicated, because it is necessary to initially ensure the flow of the mixture into the cylinder, squeeze it for better ignition, as well as bring the combustion products. These actions got the name of the clocks.
Total 4 clocks:
- inlet (the mixture enters the cylinder);
- compression (the mixture is compressed by reducing the volume inside the piston sleeve);
- working (after ignituing the mixture, because of its expansion, pushes the piston down);
- release (disharging of combustion products from the sleeve for supplying the next portion of the mixture);
Piston engine tacts
It follows from this that a useful action has only work moves, three others - preparatory. Each beat is accompanied by a certain movement of the piston. When inlet and work, it moves down, and when compressed and release - up. And since the piston is associated with the crankshaft, each tact corresponds to a certain corner of the agonor of the shaft around the axis.
The implementation of clocks in the engine is made in two ways. The first - with the combination of clocks. In such a motor, all the tacts are performed for one complete crankshaft. That is, half-turn of the knees. The shaft at which the movement of the piston up or down is accompanied by two clocks. These engines were called 2-strokes.
The second way is separate tacts. One piston movement is accompanied by only one tact. As a result, to happen full cycle Works - 2 knee turnover is required. Shaft around the axis. Such engines received 4-stroke designation.
Cylinder block
Now the device internal combustion engine itself. The basis of any installation is a block of cylinders. It also contains all composites.
The structural features of the block depend on some conditions - the number of cylinders, their location, cooling method. The number of cylinders that are combined in one block can vary from 1 to 16. And the blocks with an odd number of cylinders are rare, only one and three-cylinder plants can be found from the produced engines. Most of the aggregates go with the pair of cylinders - 2, 4, 6, 8 and less often 12 and 16.
Four-cylinder block
Power plants with quantity from 1 to 4 cylinders usually have inline cylinders. If the number of cylinders is larger, they are placed in two rows, while with a certain angle of the position of one row relative to the other, the so-called power plants with the V-shaped position of the cylinders. Such a location made it possible to reduce the dimensions of the block, but at the same time the manufacturer is more complicated than in a row location.
Eight-cylinder block
There is another type of blocks in which cylinders are located in two rows and with an angle between them in 180 degrees. These engines were called. They are found mainly on motorcycles, although there are cars with such a type of power unit.
But the condition for the number of cylinders and their location is optional. There are 2-cylinder and 4-cylinder engines with a V-shaped or opposite position of cylinders, as well as 6-cylinder engines with inline arrangement.
Two types of cooling are used, which are used on power plants - air and liquid. The structural feature of the unit depends on this. Block S. air cooled Less overall and structurally easier, since the cylinders are not included in its design.
A block with liquid cooling is more complicated, its design includes cylinders, and the cooling shirt is located on top of the block with cylinders. Inside it circulates the liquid, removing the heat from the cylinders. At the same time, the block together shirt cooling is one integer.
From above, the unit is covered with a special stove - head of the cylinder block (GBC). It is one of the components that provide a closed space in which the combustion process is produced. Its design can be simple, not including additional mechanisms, or complicated.
crank mechanism
Incoming the engine design, ensures the transformation of the reciprocating movement of the piston in the sleeve in the rotational motion of the crankshaft. The main element of this mechanism is the crankshaft. It has a moving connection with the cylinder block. Such a connection ensures the rotation of this shaft around the axis.
A flywheel is attached to one of the ends of the shaft. The handwheel task includes the transfer of torque from the shaft on. Since the 4-stroke engine by two crankshaft turns accounts for only one half turn with a useful action - the work move, the rest require a reverse action, which is performed by the flywheel. Having a significant mass and turning, due to its kinetic energy, it ensures the grinding of the knees. Shaft during preparatory clocks.
The flywheel circle has a toothed crown, using it is running the power plant.
On the other hand, the shaft is placed a drive gear of the oil pump and the gas distribution mechanism, as well as a flange for fastening pulley.
This mechanism also includes connecting rods that ensure the transfer of effort from the piston to the crankshaft and back. Fastening to the shawn shatunov is also moving moving.
The surface of the cylinder block, knees. The shaft and connecting rods in the connecting places directly among themselves are not in contact between them, the sliding bearings are between them - inserts.
Cylinder-piston group
This group of cylinder sleeves, pistons, piston rings and fingers are consisting. It is in this group that the combustion process and the transmission of the extracted energy for transformation occurs. The combustion occurs inside the sleeve, which on one side is closed by the head of the block, and on the other - the piston. The piston itself can move inside the sleeve.
To ensure maximum tightness inside the sleeve, piston rings are used that prevent the mixture and combustion products between the walls of the sleeve and the piston.
The piston through the finger is movably connected to the connecting rod.
Gas distribution mechanism
The task of this mechanism includes a timely supply of a combustible mixture or its components in a cylinder, as well as the removal of combustion products.
Two-stroke engines as such no mechanism. It has a mixture and removal of combustion products produced by the technological windows that are done in the walls of the sleeve. Such windows are three - intake, bypass and graduation.
The piston, moving the opening-closing of a window, this is filling the liner with fuel and removal of spent gases. The use of such gas distribution does not require additional nodes, so the GBC in such an engine is simple and only the provision of cylinder tightness is included in its task.
A 4-stroke engine has a gas distribution mechanism. The fuel in such an engine is supplied through special holes in the head. These holes are closed with valves. With the need for fuel supply or gas removal from the cylinder, the corresponding valve is opened. The opening of the valves provides a camshaft, which with its cams at the desired moment presses the required valve and opens the hole. The camshaft drive is carried out from the crankshaft.
Timber with belt and chain drive
The layout of the gas distribution mechanism may differ. Engines are available with the lower arrangement of the camshaft (it is in the cylinder block) and the upper location of the valves (in the GBC). The transfer of effort from the shaft to the valves is carried out by means of rods and rockers.
Motors are more common, in which the shaft and valves have the top location. With such a layout, the shaft is also placed in the GBC and it acts on the valve directly, without intermediate elements.
Supply system
This system provides fuel preparation for further submitting it to the cylinder. The design of this system depends on the fuel used by the engine. The main now is fuel allocated from oil, with various fractions - gasoline and diesel fuel.
In engines using gasoline, there are two types. fuel system - carburetor and injection. In the first system, the mixing formation is made in the carburetor. It produces a dosage and feeding fuel into the air flow passing through it, then this mixture is already fed to the cylinders. Such a system and fuel tank, fuel lines, vacuum fuel pump and carburetor consist of a vacuum fuel pump.
Carburetor system
The same is done in injection cars, but they have a more accurate dosage. Also, fuel in the injectors is added to the air flow in the inlet nozzle through the nozzle. This nozzle fuel spraying, which provides better mixing formation. The injection system from the tank, the pump located in it, filters, fuel lines, and fuel ramps with nozzles installed on the intake manifold.
Diesels, the supply of components of the fuel mixture produced separately. The gas distribution mechanism through valves only fits air into cylinders. The fuel in the cylinders is supplied separately, nozzles and high pressure. This system consists of a tank, filters, high pressure fuel pump (TNVD) and nozzles.
Injector systems recently appeared, which operate on the principle of diesel fuel system - injector with direct injection.
The exhaust gas removal system provides the derivation of combustion products from cylinders, partial neutralization of harmful substances, and a decrease in sound when the exhaust gas is derived. It consists of a graduate manifold, a resonator, a catalyst (not always) and the muffler.
Lubrication system
The lubrication system provides reduced friction between the interacting surfaces of the engine, by creating a special film that prevents direct contact surfaces. Additionally carries out heat removal, protects the engine elements from corrosion.
The lubrication system of the oil pump, oil tanks - pallet, oil pump, oil filter, canals, by which the oil moves to rubbing surfaces.
Cooling system
Maintaining the optimal operating temperature during the engine operation is provided by the cooling system. Two types of system are used - air and liquid.
The air system produces cooling by blowing cylinders then air. For better cooling On the cylinders are made of cooling ribs.
In the liquid system, the cooling is produced by liquid, which circulates in a cooling shirt with direct contact with the outer wall of the sleeve. This system is made of cooling shirt, water pump, thermostat, nozzles and radiator.
Ignition system
The ignition system is applied only on gasoline engines. On diesel engines, the ignition of the mixture is made from compression, so this system is not needed.
In the gasoline car, the ignition is performed from the spark that skipping at a certain point between the electrodes of the incandescent candles installed in the block head so that its skirt is in the combustion chamber of the cylinder.
The ignition system is made from the ignition coil, distributor (traver), wiring and spark plugs.
Electrical equipment
Provides this electricity equipment on-board network Auto, including the ignition system. This equipment is also made and started the engine. It consists of an acb, generator, starter, wiring, all sorts of sensors, which are followed by the operation and status of the engine.
This is the entire device of the internal combustion engine. He is constantly improving, but the principle of work does not change, it is improved only separate knots and mechanisms.
Modern development
The main task over which automakers are fighting is a decrease in fuel consumption and emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere. Therefore, they constantly improve the power system, the result is the recent appearance of injection systems with direct injection.
Alternative fuels are searched for, the latest development in this direction is still the use of alcohols as fuel, as well as vegetable oils.
Also scientists are trying to establish the production of engines with a completely different principle of work. Such, for example, is the vankel engine, but there are no special success yet.
AUTOLEEK.What is an internal combustion engine (DVS)
All engines convert any energy to work. The engines are different - electrical, hydraulic, thermal, etc., depending on what kind of energy they are transformed into work. DVS - an internal combustion engine, this is a heat engine, in which the heat of the combusting fuel in the engine is converted to the workful operation, inside the engine. Also there are engine with external combustion - these are jet engines of airplanes, rockets, etc. In these engines, combustion is external, so they are called external combustion engines.
But a simple manner often faces the engine of the car and understand under the engine piston Engine internal combustion. In the piston internal combustion engine, the power of gases arising from the combustion of fuel in the working chamber is affected by the piston, which makes the reciprocating movement in the engine cylinder and transfers the effort to the crank-connecting mechanism, which converts the return-translational movement of the piston in the rotational motion of the crankshaft . But this is a very simplified look at the engine. In fact, in the OI, the most comprehensive physical phenomena are concentrated, the understanding of which many outstanding scientists dedicated themselves. In order to work in its cylinders, replacing each other, there are processes such as air supply, injection and spraying of fuel, mixing it with air, ignition of the resulting mixture, the spread of the flame, the removal of exhaust gases. Several thousandths of seconds are given to each process. Add to this processes that flow in engine systems: Heat exchange, the flow of gases and liquids, friction and wear, chemical processes for neutralization of exhaust gases, mechanical and thermal loads. This is not a complete list. And each of the processes should be organized well. After all, out of the quality of DVS processes The quality of the engine as a whole is its power, efficiency, noise, toxicity, reliability, cost, weight and sizes.
Read also
Internal combustion engine is different:, gasoline, with funnant nutrition, etc. And this is not a complete list! As you can see, the embodiments of the internal combustion engines are very much, but if it is worth touched upon the classification of the engine, then for a detailed consideration of the entire volume of the material it will be necessary to at least 20-30 pages - a large volume, right? And this is only a classification ...
Principal DVS car Niva
1 - probe to measure the oil level in the crankcase |
22 - Star of the camshaft |
|---|
No area of \u200b\u200bactivity is incomparable with piston DVS scale, the number of people employed in the development, production and operation. In developed countries, the activities of the quarter of the amateur population are directly or indirectly associated with piston engine. Engineering, as an exceptionally high-tech region, determines and stimulates the development of science and education. The total power of piston internal combustion engines is 80 - 85% of the power of all power plants of the world energy. On road, railway, water transport, agriculture, construction, small mechanization, a number of other areas, piston engine, as an energy source has not yet has a due alternative. World production only car engines Continuously increases, exceeding 60 million units per year. The number of small-sized engines produced in the world also exceeds tens of millions per year. Even in aviation, piston engines dominate the total power, the number of models and modifications and the number of engine installed on airplanes. In the world there are several hundred thousand aircraft with piston DVS (business class, sports, unmanned, etc.). In the US, the share of piston engines accounts for about 70% of the power of all engines installed on civilian aircraft.
But over time, everything changes and soon we will see and we will exploit fundamentally other types of engines that will have high performance indicators, high efficiency, simplicity of design and most importantly - environmental friendliness. Yes, everything is true, the main minus of the internal combustion engine is its environmental characteristic. No matter how you hurned the work of the engine, whatever systems are not implemented, it still turns out to be a significant impact on our health. Yes, now it is safe to say that the existing technology of motor construction feels "ceiling" - this is a state when that, or other technology completely exhausted my opportunity, completely squeezed, everything that could be done is already done and from the point of view of ecology. no longer change in existing types of DVS. There is a question: you need to fully change the principle of engine operation, its energy carrier (oil products) on something new, fundamentally different (). But, unfortunately, this is a matter of not one day or even the year, decades are needed ...
So far, not one generation of scientists and designers will explore and improve the old technology gradually approaching everything closer and closer to the wall, through which it will be impossible to jump (physically it is not possible). A very long time ICC will give work to those who produce it, exploits, serves and sells. Why? Everything is very simple, but at the same time this simple truth is not everyone understands and accept. The main reason for slowing the introduction of fundamentally different technologies - capitalism. Yes, no matter how hard it sounds strange, but it is capitalism, that system that seems to be interested in new technologies, inhibits the development of mankind! Everything is very simple - you need to earn. How to be with those petroleum ties, refinery and income?
DVS "buried" repeatedly. At different times, electric motors on batteries, fuel cells on hydrogen and much more came to replace it. DVS invariably won in the competitive struggle. And even the problem of exhaustion of oil and gas reserves is not the problem of DVS. There is an unlimited source of fuel for DVS. According to the latest data, oil can restore, and what does this mean for us?
DVS characteristics
With the same design parameters from different engines such indicators such as power, torque and specific fuel consumption may differ. This is due to features such as the number of valves per cylinder, gas distribution phases, etc. Therefore, to evaluate the engine operation on different revs, characteristics are used - the dependence of its indicators from operating modes. Characteristics are determined by the experimental way on special stands, since theoretically, they are calculated only approximately.
As a rule, in the technical documentation for the car, the external high-speed characteristics of the engine (drawing on the left) are given, which determine the dependence of the power, torque and the specific fuel consumption from the number of crankshaft turns at full fuel supply. They give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe maximum engine indicators.
Engine indicators (simplified) are changed for the following reasons. With an increase in the number of crankshaft revolutions, the torque is growing due to the fact that more fuel flows into the cylinders. It is about average turnover, it reaches its maximum, and then begins to decline. This is due to the fact that with an increase in the rotation speed of the crankshaft begin to play a significant role in the inertial forces, friction forces, the aerodynamic resistance of intake pipelines, worsening the filling of the cylinders with a fresh charge of the fuel-air mixture, and so on.
The rapid growth of the engine torque indicates good dynamics The acceleration of the car due to the intensive increase in the force of the thrust on the wheels. The longer the moment the moment is located in the area of \u200b\u200bits maximum and does not decrease, the better. Such an engine is more adapted to changing the road conditions and less often will have to switch transmissions.
Power grows together with torque and even when it starts to decline, continues to increase due to increased revolutions. After reaching the maximum, the power begins to decline for the same reason, which reduces the torque. The speed is slightly higher than the maximum power limit the control devices, since in this mode a significant part of the fuel is not spent on the performance of useful work, but to overcome the forces of inertia and friction in the engine. The maximum power determines the maximum vehicle speed. In this mode, the car does not accelerate and the engine works only on overcoming the resistance forces to the movement - air resistance, rolling resistance, etc.
The value of the specific fuel consumption also changes depending on the crankshaft revolutions, which is visible on the characteristic. The specific fuel consumption must be as long as possible near the minimum; This indicates good engine efficiency. The minimum specific consumption is usually achieved just below the average revolutions, which are mainly operated by a car when driving in the city.
The dotted line on the chart above shows the more optimal characteristics of the engine.
Internal combustion engine - This is an engine in which fuel combines directly in the working chamber ( inside ) Engine. DVS converts thermal energy from fuel combustion into mechanical work.
Compared with engines external combustion DVS:
- no additional elements of heat transfer - fuel itself forms a working fluid;
- more compact, as it does not have a number of additional aggregates;
- easier;
- more economical;
- consumes fuel that has very hard given parameters (evaporation, flash of vapor flash, density, heat of combustion, octane or cetane number), since the operability of the ICA itself depends on these properties.
Video: The principle of engine operation. 4-H. clock engine internal combustion (DVS) in 3D. The principle of operation of an internal combustion engine. From the history of scientific discoveries Rudolph diesel and diesel engine. Motor device car. Internal combustion engine (DVS) in 3D. The principle of operation of an internal combustion engine. Work in the DVS. In the context of 3d
Scheme: two-stroke engine of internal combustion with a resonator tube
Four-stroke row four-cylinder internal combustion engine
History of creation
In 1807, French-Swiss inventor Francois Isaac de Rivaz built the first piston engine called often engine de Rivaza. The engine worked on hydrogen gaseous, having structural elements, since then included in the following KVS prototypes: piston group and spark ignition. The crank-connecting rod mechanism in the engine design has not yet been.
Gas engine Lenoara, 1860.
The first practically suitable two-stroke gas engine was designed by the French mechanic Etienne Lenoir in 1860. Power was 8.8 kW (11.97 liters p.). The engine was a single-cylinder horizontal dual-action machine operating on air and light gas mixtures with electric spark ignition From an extraneous source. In the design of the engine, a crank-connecting mechanism appeared.
The engine efficiency did not exceed 4.65%. Despite the flaws, the Lenoara engine received some spread. Used as a boat engine.
When he acquainted with the Lenoara engine, in the fall of 1860, the outstanding German designer Nikolaus August Otto built a copy of the Lenoara gas engine and in January 1861 filed an application for a liquid fuel patent on the basis of the Lenoara gas engine to the Ministry of Commerce Prussia, but the application was rejected. In 1863, he created a two-stroke atmospheric internal combustion engine. The engine had a vertical location of the cylinder, the ignition of the open flame and the efficiency of up to 15%. Pushed out the engine of Lenoara.
Four-stroke engine OTTO 1876.
In 1876, Nicaus August Otto built a more perfect four-stroke gas engine of internal combustion.
In the 1880s, Ogneslala Stepanovich Kostovich in Russia built the first gasoline carburetor Engine.
Motorcycle Daimler from the engine of 1885
In 1885, German engineers Gottlib Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach developed a light gasoline carburetor engine. Daimler and Maybach used it to create a first motorcycle in 1885, and in 1886 - on the first car.
The German engineer Rudolph Diesel sought to increase the efficiency of the internal combustion engine and in 1897 offered an engine with compression ignition. At the Plant "Ludwig Nobel" Emmanuel Ludwigovich Nobel in St. Petersburg in 1898-1899 Gustav Vasilyevich Trinker improved this engine, using an uncomprisement of fuel spraying, which made it possible to apply oil as fuel. As a result, the uncompromising internal combustion engine of high compression with self-ignition became the most economical stationary thermal engine. In 1899, the first diesel engine in Russia was built at the Ludwig Nobel factory and launched mass production Diesels. This first diesel has a power of 20 liters. p., One cylinder with a diameter of 260 mm, piston stroke 410 mm and rotation frequency 180 rpm. In Europe, a diesel engine, improved by Gustav Vasilyevich Trinker, was called "Russian diesel" or "Trinker-Motor". At the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900, the diesel engine received the main prize. In 1902, the Kolomna Plant bought Nobel Ludwigovich Nobel from Emmanuel License for the production of diesel engines and soon established mass production.
In 1908, the chief engineer of the Kolomna Plant R. A. Korevivo builds and patents in France a two-stroke diesel with opposite-moving pistons and two crankshafts. Diesels Korevo began to be widely used on the waters of the Kolomna factory. They were produced at the plants of the Nobels.
In 1896, Charles V. Hart and Charles Parre developed a two-cylinder gasoline engine. In 1903, their firm built 15 tractors. Their six-path # 3 is the oldest tractor with an internal combustion engine in the United States and is kept in the Smithsonian National Museum of American History in Washington, DC. The gasoline two-cylinder engine had a completely unreliable ignition system and a capacity of 30 liters. from. on the idling and 18 liters. from. under load .
Dan Elbon with his prototype of an agricultural tractor IVEL
The first practically suitable tractor with an internal combustion engine was an American three-wheel tractor LVEL Dan Elbourne 1902. About 500 such lungs and powerful cars were built.
Engine used by Right brothers in 1910
In 1903, the flight of the first aircraft brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright took place. The engine of the aircraft made a mechanic Charlie Taylor. The main parts of the engine were made of aluminum. Wright-Taylor engine was a primitive variant of the gasoline injection engine.
On the world in the world, the oil ship - the oil barge "Vandal", built in 1903 in Russia at the Sormovsky factory for the "Nobel Brothers Partnership", were installed three four-dimensional diesel engines with a capacity of 120 liters. from. everyone. In 1904, the ship "Sarmat" was built.
In 1924, on the project of Yakov, the Modestovich Gakkel in the Baltic Shipbuilding Plant in Leningrad was created by the diesel locomotive system of Yu E 2 (Shch 1).
Almost simultaneously in Germany, by order of the USSR and on the project of Professor Yu. V. Lomonosov, on the personal indication of V. I. Lenin in 1924, in the German plant Esslingen (formerly Kessler) near Stuttgart, diesel locomotive Eel2 was built (originally YU001).
Types of internal combustion engines
Piston DVS
Rotary DVS
Gas turbine DVS
- Piston motors - the combustion chamber serves a cylinder, reciprocating piston movement using a crank-connecting mechanism is converted into the rotation of the shaft.
- Gas turbine - energy transformation is carried out by a rotor with wedge-shaped blades.
- Rotary-piston engines - in them the conversion of energy is carried out due to the rotation of the operation gases of the special profile rotor (Vankel engine).
DVS classify:
- by appointment - on transport, stationary and special.
- by the nature of the fuel used - light liquid (gasoline, gas), heavy liquid (diesel fuel, ship fuel oils).
- according to the method of formation of a combustible mixture - an external (carburetor) and internal (in the Cylinder internal combustion).
- in terms of work cavities and high-sir characteristics - light, medium, heavy, special.
In addition to the above-mentioned Classification criteria for all, the criteria exist for which individual types of engines are classified. Thus, piston engines can be classified by quantity and location of cylinders, crankshaft and distribution shafts, by type of cooling, by the presence or absence of Creicopfa, upgrade (and by type of supervision), according to the method of mixing and by the type of ignition, by the number of carburetors, by type of gas distribution The mechanism, in the direction and frequency of rotation of the crankshaft, in relation to the diameter of the cylinder to the move of the piston, by the degree of speed ( mid speed piston).
Octane number of fuel
Energy is transmitted by crankshaft Engine from expanding gases during the working stroke. Compressing the fuel-air mixture to the volume of the combustion chamber increases the efficiency of the engine and increases its efficiency, but an increase in the degree of compression also increases the heating of the working mixture caused by compression according to the Charles law.
If the fuel is flammable, the flash is occurring until the NWT piston is reached. This, in turn, will force the piston to turn the crankshaft in the opposite direction - such a phenomenon is called reverse flash.
The octane number is a measure of the percentage of isocutane in the heptane octane mixture and reflects the fuel ability to resist self-ignition under the influence of temperature. Fuel with higher octane numbers Allow the engine with a high compression engine to work without a leaning to self-ignition and detonation and, it became, to have a higher degree of compression and higher efficiency.
The operation of diesel engines is provided by self-ignition from compression in a cylinder of clean air or a poor gas-air mixture, incapable of independent burning (gasodizel) and the absence in the charge of fuel until the last moment.
The ratio of the diameter of the cylinder to the move of the piston
One of the fundamental design parameters of the FF is the ratio of the piston stroke to the diameter of the cylinder (or vice versa). For more high-speed gasoline engines This relationship is close to 1, on diesel engines, the piston move, as a rule, the greater the diameter of the cylinder than more engine. Optimal from the point of view of gas dynamics and the cooling of the piston is the ratio of 1: 1. The greater the stroke of the piston, the greater the torque develops the engine and the lower its operating range of revolutions. On the contrary, the larger the diameter of the cylinder, the higher the engine turnover and the lower the torque on low revs. As a rule, short-spectal engine (especially racing) have a larger torque per unit of work volume, but on relatively high revolutions (more than 5000 rpm). With a larger diameter of the cylinder / piston, it is more difficult to ensure a proper heat sink from the piston's pedestal due to its large linear dimensions, but at high working turns, the piston rate in the cylinder does not exceed the piston speed longer-time on its operating turnover.
Petrol
Gasoline carburetor
A mixture of fuel with air is prepared in a carburetor, then the mixture is supplied to the cylinder, compressing, and then sets up with a spark that skipping the candles between the electrodes. The main characteristic feature of the fuel-air mixture in this case is homogeneity.
Injector gasoline
Also, there is a method of mixing by injection of gasoline in the intake manifold or directly into the cylinder with spraying nozzles (injector). There are single-point systems (monovosprysk), and distributed injection of various mechanical and electronic systems. IN mechanical systems Injection The addition of fuel is carried out by a plunger-lever mechanism with the possibility of electron adjustment of the composition of the mixture. In electronic systems, the mixing formation is carried out using an electronic control unit (ECU), controlling electric gasoline nozzles.
Diesel, with compression ignition
The diesel engine is characterized by fuel ignition without using spark plug. The air from adiabatic compression hesitated in the cylinder (to a temperature exceeding the fuel ignition temperature) through the nozzle is injected into a fuel portion. In the process of injection of the fuel mixture, it occurs, and then around separate drops of the fuel mixture there are foci of combustion, as the fuel mixture is injected into the form of a torch.
As diesel engines Not subject to detonation, characteristic of coercive ignition engines, is permissible to use higher degrees of compression (up to 26), which, in combination with long-term combustion, providing constant pressure of the working fluid, has a beneficial effect on the efficiency of this type of engines, which may exceed 50% in the case of large ship engines.
Diesel engines are less quick and characterized by a large torque on the shaft. Also, some large diesel engines are adapted to work on heavy fuels, such as fuel oil. The launch of large diesel engines is carried out, as a rule, due to the pneumatic circuit with a compressed air margin, or, in the case of diesel generator sets, from the attached electrical generator, which when started, the role of the starter.
Contrary to popular belief, modern engines, traditionally called diesel, do not work in a diesel cycle, but along the trinker cycle - Sabate with a mixed supply of warmth.
The disadvantages of diesel engines are due to the features of the working cycle - a higher mechanical stress that requires increased structural strength and, as a result, increasing its dimensions, weight and increase value by the complicated design and use of more expensive materials. Also diesel engines due to heterogeneous combustion are characterized by inevitable soot emissions and an increased content of nitrogen oxides in exhaust gases.
Gas engines
The engine burning as fuel hydrocarbons in a gaseous state under normal conditions:
- mixtures of liquefied gases are stored in a cylinder under pressure from saturated vapor (up to 16 atm). The liquid phase and the steam phase of the mixture of the mixture of stepper loses the pressure in the gas gearbox to close atmospheric, and is absorbed by the engine in the intake manifold through the air-gas mixer or injected into the intake manifold by means of electrical nozzles. The ignition is carried out using a spark that skipping the candles between the electrodes.
- compressed natural gases are stored in a cylinder under a pressure of 150-200 atm. The device of the power supply system is similar to power systems with liquefied gas, the difference is the absence of an evaporator.
- gas generator gas obtained by turning hard fuel into gaseous. As hard fuel used:
- coal
- wood
Gasodiselny
The main portion of fuel is prepared as in one of the species gas enginesBut ignites not with an electrical candle, but with the ignitant portion of diesel fuel injected into the cylinder similarly to a diesel engine.
Rotary-piston
Wannel engine cycle circuit: inlet (intake), compression, workforce (iGNITION), release (exhaust); A - triangular rotor (piston), B - shaft.
Offered by the inventor Vankel at the beginning of the XX century. The base of the engine is a triangular rotor (piston), rotating in the chamber of a special 8-shaped form, performing the piston, crankshaft and gas distributor. This design allows any 4-stroke diesel cycle, stirling or OTO without the use of a special gas distribution mechanism. In one turn, the engine performs three full operating cycles, which is equivalent to the operation of the six-cylinder piston engine. SSRA serially built in Germany (car RO-80), a VAZ in the USSR (VAZ-21018 "Zhiguli", VAZ-416, VAZ-426, VAZ-526), \u200b\u200bMazda in Japan (Mazda RX-7, Mazda RX-8 ). With its principled simplicity, there have a number of significant constructive difficulties that make its widespread introduction very difficult. The main difficulties are associated with the creation of durable workable seals between the rotor and the camera and with the construction of the lubrication system.
In Germany, at the end of the 70s of the 20th century, there was an anecdote: "I will sell NSU, ladies in addition two wheels, a headlight and 18 spare motors in good condition."
- RCV is an internal combustion engine, the system of gas distribution of which is implemented due to the movement of the piston, which makes reciprocating movements, alternately passing the intake and outlet.
Combined internal combustion engine
- - The internal combustion engine, which is a combination of piston and blade machinery (turbine, compressor), in which both machines are in relevant extent in the implementation of the workflow. An example of a combined DVS is a piston engine with gas turbine supervision (turbocharging). A Soviet engineer, Professor A. N. Shelest, made a great contribution to the theory of combined engines.
Turbocharged
The most common type of combined engines is a piston with a turbocharger.
Turbocharger or turbocharger (TC, TN) is a supercharger, which is driven by exhaust gases. He got his name from the word "turbine" (FR. Turbine from Lat. Turbo - whirlwind, rotation). This device consists of two parts: the rotary wheel of the turbine driven by the movement of exhaust gases, and the centrifugal compressor attached at the opposite ends of the total shaft.
Jet of the working body (in this case, exhaust gases) affects the blades, fixed in the circumference of the rotor, and leads them in motion along with the shaft, which is made in a single integer with a turbine rotor from the alloy close to alloy steel. On the shaft, in addition to the turbine rotor, the compressor rotor made from aluminum alloys, which, when rotating the shaft, allows the air into the cylinders of the engine. Thus, as a result of the operation of exhaust gases on the turbine blades, the turbine rotor, the shaft and the compressor rotor are unchecked. The use of a turbocharger in conjunction with an intermediate air cooler (intercooler) makes it possible to provide more dense air into the Cylinders of the DVS (in modern turbocharged engines it is just such a scheme). Often, when used in the turbocharger engine, they talk about a turbine, not a mentioned compressor. Turbocharger is one. It is impossible to use the energy of exhaust gases to supply an air mixture under pressure to the Cylinder internal combustion engine using only a turbine. The discharge provides that part of the turbocharger, which is called the compressor.
At idle, with small revolutions, the turbocharger produces a small power and is driven by a small amount of exhaust gases. In this case, the turbocharger is inffective, and the engine works in about the same way as without injection. When a much large output power is required from the engine, then its turnover, as well as the throttle clearance, increase. While the number of exhaust gases is enough to rotate the turbine, much more air is supplied through the inlet pipe.
Turbocharge allows the engine to work more efficiently, since the turbocharger uses exhaust energy, which, otherwise, would (mostly) lost.
However, there is a technological restriction, known as the Turboyama ("TURBOVER") (with the exception of motors with two turbocharger - small and large, when small TC works on small turns, and in large - large, together providing the supply of the required amount of air mixture to cylinders Or when using a turbine with a variable geometry, the motor sport also uses forced across the turbine using the energy recovery system). The engine power increases not instantly due to the fact that the change in the frequency of rotation of the engine, which has some inertia, will be spent a certain time, as well as due to the fact that the larger the mass of the turbine, the longer it is necessary to spin it and creating pressure, sufficient to increase engine power. In addition, the increased graduation pressure leads to the fact that the exhaust gases transmit part of their heat mechanical parts The engine (this problem is partially solved by the manufacturers of Japanese and Korean FF plants by installing an additional cooling system of the turbocharger antifreeze).
Piston DVS Work Cycles
Two-stroke cycle
Scheme of the four-stroke engine, Otto cycle
1. Intake
2. Compression
3. Working
4. Issue
Piston internal combustion engines are classified by the number of clocks in the operating cycle on the two-stroke and four-stroke.
The working cycle of four internal combustion engines occupies two complete turns of the crankshaft or 720 degrees of the rotation of the crankshaft (PKV), consisting of four separate clocks:
- inlet
- compression charge
- working move I.
- release (exhaust).
Changing workbacks is provided by a special gas distribution mechanism, most often it is represented by one or two camshafts, a system of pushers and valves directly by changing the phase. Some internal combustion engines used spool sleeves (Ricardo), having intake and / or exhaust windows for this purpose. The message of the cavity of the cylinder with collectors in this case was provided by radial and rotational motions of the spool sleeve, the windows opening the desired channel. Due to the peculiarities of gas dynamics - inertia of gases, the time of the gas wind of the intake, the working stroke and the release in the real four-stroke cycle is overlap, it is called overlapping phases of gas distribution. The higher the engine operating speeds, the greater the overlap of the phases and the greater the longer the torque of the internal combustion engine at low revs. Therefore B. modern engines Internal combustion is increasingly used devices to change the gas distribution phases during operation. Especially suitable for this purpose engines with electromagnetic control valves (BMW, Mazda). There are also engines with variable degree Compression (Saab AB), which have greater flexibility.
Two-stroke engines There are many layout options and a wide variety of constructive systems. The basic principle of any two-stroke engine is the execution of the piston of the functions of the gas distribution element. The working cycle is developing, strictly speaking, out of three clocks: workstop, located from the upper dead point ( NMT) up to 20-30 degrees to the bottom dead point ( NMT), purge, actually combining the inlet and exhaust, and compression, located from 20-30 degrees after NMT to NTC. Blowing, from the point of view of gas dynamics, a weak link of the two-stroke cycle. On the one hand, it is impossible to ensure the full separation of fresh charge and exhaust gases, so inevitable either loss of fresh mixture literally departing into the exhaust pipe (if the internal combustion engine is a diesel engine, we are talking about air loss), on the other hand, the work move lasts not half turnover, and less that in itself reduces the efficiency. At the same time, the duration of an extremely important gas exchange process, in a four-stroke engine occupying half of the working cycle, cannot be increased. Two-stroke engines may not have gas distribution systems at all. However, if it comes to simplified cheap engines, the two-stroke engine is more complicated and more expensive at the expense of the mandatory use of the blower or the supervision system, the increased heat-stroke of the CPG requires more expensive materials for the pistons, rings, cylinder bushings. The execution of the piston of functions of the gas distribution element obliges to have its height of no less piston stroke + the height of the purge windows, which is non-critical in the moped, but significantly weights the piston already at relatively small capacities. When power is measured by hundreds horse powerThe increase in the mass of the piston becomes a very serious factor. The introduction of distribution sleeves with a vertical course in Ricardo engines was an attempt to make it possible to reduce the dimensions and weight of the piston. The system turned out to be complex and expensive, except aviation, such engines were no longer used anywhere. The exhaust valves (with a straight-flow valve purge) have twice as high thermal stress in comparison with the exhaust valves of four-stroke engines and the worst conditions for the heat sink, and their sidel have a longer direct contact with exhaust gases.
The most simple in terms of the order of work and the most difficult in terms of design is the system of Korevo, represented in the USSR and in Russia, mainly diesel dieselks of the series D100 and tank diesel engines. Such an engine is a symmetrical two-walled system with diverging pistons, each of which is associated with its crankshaft. Thus, this engine has two crankshafts, mechanically synchronized; The one that is associated with the exhaust pistons is ahead of the intake by 20-30 degrees. Due to this advance, the quality of the purge is improved, which in this case is direct-flow, and the cylinder filling is improved, since at the end of the purge the exhaust windows are already closed. In the 30s - 40s of the XX century, schemes with pairs of diverging pistons were proposed - diamond, triangular; There were aviation diesel engines with three star-like diverging pistons, of which two were intake and one - exhaust. In the 20s, Junckers proposed a single system with long connecting rods associated with the fingers of the top pistons with special rocker; The upper piston passed the effort to the crankshaft by a pair of long connectors, and one cylinder had three shaft knees. Square pistons of purge cavities also stood on the rocker. Two-stroke engines with diverging pistons of any system have, mostly two disadvantages: firstly, they are very complex and overall, secondly, exhaust pistons and sleeves in the zone of exhaust windows have a significant temperature tension and a tendency to overheating. Rings of exhaust pistons are also thermally loaded, prone to stamping and loss of elasticity. These features make a constructive performance of such engines with a nontrivial task.
Engines with direct flow valve purge are equipped with a camshaft and exhaust valves. This significantly reduces the requirements for the materials and execution of the CPG. The inlet is carried out through the windows in the cylinder sleeve opened by the piston. This is how most modern two-stroke diesel engines are composed. The zone of windows and sleeves in the lower part in many cases is cooled by the empowerment.
In cases where one of the main requirements for the engine is its reduction, various types of crank-chamber contour window-window purge are used - loop, return-loop (deflexor) in a variety of modifications. To improve the engine parameters, a variety of constructive techniques are applied - the variable length of the inlet and exhaust channels is used, the number and location of the bypass channels can vary, spools, rotating gas cutters, sleeves and curtains that change the height of windows (and, accordingly, the moments of the inlet and exhaust) are used. Most of these engines have air passive cooling. Their disadvantages are the relatively low quality of the gas exchange and the loss of combustible mixture when purging, if there are several cylinders section of the crank chambers, it is necessary to separate and seal, complicated and the design of the crankshaft.
Additional units required for ICE
The disadvantage of the internal combustion engine is that it develops the highest power only in a narrow range of revolutions. Therefore, the integral attribute of the internal combustion engine is the transmission. Only in some cases (for example, in airplanes) you can do without a complex transmission. Gradually conquers the world idea hybrid carin which the motor always works in optimal mode.
In addition, the internal combustion engine requires a power system (for fuel and air - preparation of fuel-air mixture), exhaust system (for removal of exhaust gases), also not to do without a lubricant system (intended to reduce friction forces in engine mechanisms, protect engine parts from corrosion, and also with a cooling system to maintain optimal thermal regime), cooling system (to maintain the optimal thermal mode of the engine), the start system (the starting methods are used: electrostarity using auxiliary starting engine, pneumatic, with the help of muscular human strength), the ignition system (to ignite the fuel-air mixture, is used in engines with forced ignition).
Technological features of manufacturing
To process holes in various parts, including in the parts of the engine (holes of the head of the cylinder blocks (GBC), cylinder liners, holes of the crank and piston heads of rods, holes of gear), etc., high demands are presented. Used high-precision grinding and honing technologies.
Notes
- Hart Parr # 3 Tractor on the website of the National Museum of American History (English)
- Andrey Elk. Red Bull Racing and Renault on new power plants. F1news.ru. (March 25, 2014).
