Includes reductions in organizations and publications that are often found in scientific Russian-speaking publications of historical topics. Contents 1 Abbreviation 1.1 Museums 1.1.1 A ... Wikipedia
Below is a list of abbreviations borrowed from the Latin language. a. (Lat. Annuus, Anno) "Year", "per year" a. (Lat. Antem) "To", "Before", "Before" AMIC. (lat. AB AMICO) "From each other ... Wikipedia
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Contents 1 Acting Ice Arena Russia 2 See also 3 Links ... Wikipedia
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The article contains a list of commonly used abbreviations of mathematical functions, operators, etc. Mathematical terms. Contents 1 Abbreviation 1.1 Latin 1.2 Greek Alphabet ... Wikipedia
This list contains a variety of record words (mostly Russian). These words are extreme from the point of view of various criteria associated with the letters contained in the word and combinations (a large number of letters, a large number ... ... Wikipedia
Name Position Start of Board End of Board Party French Upper Volta Daniel Weszin Kulibali Vice President of the ruling board May 18, 1957 July 26, 1958 RDA / PDU Daniel Weszin Kulibali President of the ruling council July 26, 1958 September 7 ... ... Wikipedia
Abs. Absolute auth. Autonomous car. Automobile Agr. Agricultural Acad. Academician algebras. Algebraic Alps. Alpine alum. Aluminum Academy Sciences Anat. Anatomical Ans. Ensemble Art. Artillery, Artist Arch. Archipelago Archaol. ... ... Natural science. encyclopedic Dictionary
This page is glossary. # A ... Wikipedia
Books
- Veterinary parasitology. Reference Guide, Foret William J. Parasitology Reference Guide is a practical detailed desktop reference book on the basics of diagnosis in veterinary parasitology. The book contains useful information About life ...
- Spanish language. Synchronous translation from Spanish into Russian. Level C 1. Book of a teacher, Korolev N.F. The manual is intended for teachers of synchronous translation, the purpose of which is to form and develop language and translation skills and competencies in students, future ...
Each person comes to choosing alcoholic beverages in general and brandy in particular, taking into account their personal preferences. In addition to their own tasteings, it usually appeals to the manufacturer, brand and exposure.
All familiar with asterisks, adorning brandy labels domestic production. However, mysterious letters XO, VS, VSOP are indicated on foreign production bottles. Deciphering these abbreviations causes difficulties to many not too sophisticated connoisseurs of elite drink.
We clarify this question.
French roots
First, it should be noted that brandy is a product that is made exclusively in France. All other drinks, according to international economic agreements, are not eligible to carry such a name. Therefore, the decoding of VS, VSOP, XO and other abbreviations in alcoholic beverages of Armenia or Georgia is not required. All the necessary information, ranging from the exposure time and ending the spill place, is indicated on the label and is absolutely clear to everyone.
By the way, the production technology of the considered varieties of alcoholic beverages is absolutely identical. Therefore, whether it is an asterisk or VSOP, the decoding testifies to one - how many years have been maintained in special barrels.
The only thing I want to additionally mention is the gentle and reverent attitude of the French to this national drink. They carefully follow the compliance with all quality standards, regardless of the combinations of XO, VS, VSOP. The decoding will not be required, you can simply enjoy the unsurpassed taste.
Production technology
As is well known, the basis of brandy is however, it reaches the true taste and bouquet only after a certain time of exposure, which occurs in special oak barrels.
During this process, the source product undergoes a huge number of different transformations. From it, some substances will be destroyed, spraying the taste of the final drink. The organic material of the barrel walls gives the beverage valued by all the taste.
These natural processes proceed with very short speed. Therefore, the process of creating a truly elite beverage can take many years. The minimum term that is necessary for the alcohol poured into the barrels could carry the proud name brandy is at least one and a half years. Only after that it acquires soft velvety notes with a slight aroma of oak and a color of a mahogany tree.
My years - my wealth
Earlier, each manufacturer created its own marking system, which was pointed to bottles of brandy. Therefore, to establish how many years one or another of the drink was withstanding in special it was very difficult.
Only after the creation of the National French Bureau responsible for the production of brandy in this country, the combinations of XO, VSOP, VS were invented, the decoding of which no one has difficulties and indicates the age of the drink.
Classification
Any specialist is in a sense to distinguish all changes taking place in brandy alcohol at the very beginning of its maturation. Therefore, the combinations of VS or VSOP, the decoding of which is so interested in inexperienced buyers, are not too important for him. The main task of these abbreviations is to distinguish beverages, the exposure time of which is approaching 10 years.
This is especially true to control the production process and the quality of finished products.
So, distinguish the following shutter time:
XO - the term of aging of cognac alcohol in a barrel of oak should exceed 6 years;
VVSOP - the process of manufacturing this drink is at least 5 years;
VSOP - the drink enters the bottles after 4 years of exposure;
VS - the minimum storage period in oak barrel is 2 years.
Conclusion
Finally, we note that the time of cognac exposure is calculated from April 1, the next time for the spill. Therefore, in most cases, the duration of finding a beverage in barrels is slightly more indicated on the label, which has a beneficial effect on his taste.
By asking the question: "Abbreviation is what?" Is worth paying attention to the interpretations given in the dictionaries. The term is literally understood as a reduction, but in writing it occupies a certain place, namely, it is the formation of a single inseparable lexical design from the capital letters or the first syllables of the word group. As a rule, it concerns the names of organizations, regulatory designations of documentation (including legal), but there are also conducive expressions. The latter are often slangious expressions or professionalism, which are characteristic of a small environment, and therefore are not applied officially.
The emergence of the term
The word "abbreviation" is (which relates to morphology) "Reduction". The term originates in Latin (Brevis - briefly), but the usual sound he acquired in Italian. In modern literature, all abbreviated words include this concept, however, they should traditionally consider exceptionally comprehensive groups of words. Thus, the abbreviation is something publicly available and widely applicable. Private cases of formation of morphological construction, adopted in individual editions or articles, are necessarily explained by the text to eliminate the distortion of meaning and confusion.
History of application
Abbreviations are found even in the most ancient written sources. A bright example can be reductions found in the documents of the ancient Romans and Greeks. It is known that they were alone of the first elements used in the methods of cursor. Another example of using abbreviations began the inscriptions on coins.
After a wide distribution in the Middle Ages, the first abbreviated expressions that were used in everyday life appeared in the Middle Ages. The contracture method, in other words, to reduce individual words with the help of initial letters and ending, was used in Greece to write sacred names. This system subsequently borrowed the Romans to denote various concepts. To understand, it is necessary to determine the context of its application.
Usal scope
Usually in domestic situations are used by usable simple contractions. They are formed from short phrases or abbreviated words. The essence of the first lies in the passing of irrelevant speech members, which are easily reproduced, based on context and communication with the auxiliary verbs, parts of speech, etc.
In the letter, they are used only if necessary, because in specific papers, which are intended for use by third parties, especially when it comes to print publications, readers may not know what the abbreviation means. Separate cases can act as exceptions. Scientific work, as well as quotes, technicians, bibliographic instructions, etc. must contain a minimum of abbreviations. Separate cases of application in sciences are an urgent need.
Decoding abbreviation
In fact, the same set of letters can designate completely different phrases. For example, how to decipher ASK abbreviation? First, it can be a reduction in one word. In particular, a scientific term is suitable, denoting a bag for the spioning of mushrooms. In this case, the full option is the Greek word ASCOS (ASKOS), which is literally translated as a "bag".
Secondly, the word may be a reduction applicable in a particular medium as a slang expression. "Askorutin" and Asket can also be designated as a medical preparation and hermit in a wide range, but groups of people who come across the need to often use these words can deliberately reduce them to speed up communicative interaction with oral communication or for skitting when it comes to private notes. .
Thirdly, ASK can be decrypted as:
- architectural and construction college;
- agricultural gardening cooperative;
- abstineent syndrome in a smokers.
As you can see, in the latter case, "y" is descended when drawing up reduction. Thus, one in the form of an abbreviation is responsible for different concepts. This applies to the most common cases, but in private versions, the abbreviation may contain complex words and highly specialized terms.
BMW serially issued with rare exceptions have always had digital-letter names. The suffixes in the form of letters and words after numbers not only give a more complete characteristic of the engine, but also carry information about the type of drive, body, the length of the base ... Here are the most relevant of these characters:
A (abolished) \u003d automatic transmission,
C (abolished) \u003d body "coupe",
C \u003d convertible,
D \u003d diesel engine,
E \u003d car with wide use of energy saving technologies,
EDRIVE \u003d rechargeable hybrid car using gasoline and electric engines,
EfficientDynamics Edition - a car with a wide use of energy saving technologies,
G \u003d Engine operating on a compressed natural gas,
Hydrogen - hydrogen engine,
BMW 2002 Automatic.
I \u003d injector system fuel supply,
L \u003d elongated wheeled base
S (abolished) \u003d sport car (also used to indicate a 2-door body BMW 3 series E36),
Sdrive \u003d drive on rear wheels,
T / TURBO \u003d turbocharging,
T / Touring \u003d Universal,
Ti (abolished) \u003d 3-door hatchback designation BMW E36 Compact,
X / xDrive \u003d four-wheel drive.
Letters
The Active Hybrid line model is a mansion ( hybrid carsusing gasoline and electric motors). It includes Active Hybrid 3, Active Hybrid 5 and Active Hybrid 7, relating to the corresponding BMW series.
BMW ActiveHybrid 7.
There is also a prefix in the form of the letter M, meaning that the car has the components created by the BMW M GmbH division. It should not be confused by full-f-models and machines that have options in the form of styling, modified suspension, brakes and other parts that were developed in M \u200b\u200bGmbH.
The M-models in the name have only the letter M and the number following it, denoting the belonging to the series, for example, M3, M5, M6. Exception - M-versions of the Z3 and Z3 Coupe machines called BMW M Roadster and BMW M Coupe, as well as 1m Coupe, built on the basis of "units" BMW E82. Cars with M-accessories are characterized by the prefix M before the usual digital name: M 550D XDrive, M550i.
BMW M5.
Numbers
With numbers in the name everything is not easy. As mentioned, the reflection of the approximate volume of the engine in liters in the names of the machines was fixed only in the late 50s - early 60s. Thus, the "isetta" 250 was content with a modest 250-cubic motor, BMW 3200 cs had a 3.2-liter 6-cylinder engine, and BMW 1600 - 1.6-liter 4-cylinder. The machines on the attacks below the BMW 1600-2 class (subsequently BMW 1602) and the BMW 2002 were equipped with 1.6-liter and 2-liter motors, respectively, and the number 2 at the end meant the presence of two doors.
As expanding model Row It became clear that such a system does not allow to distinguish the classes of machines when using the same volume engines. Then the new "five" with the E12 index introduced new standard Of the three digits: the first denotes the internal corporate class of the machine, the latter, as before, is the approximate volume of the engine in liters. Now the "five" with an engine of 1,990 cubic centimeters was called BMW 520i, and the motor in 2,788 "cubes" belonged to BMW 528i.
BMW 520i
The slender system, as in the case of C, violated the emergence of a turbocharger. But if Stuttgarters faced problems only at the very end of the twentieth century, then Bavarians - for a couple of decades earlier.
A pair of modifications "Seven" E23 1979 was called 732i (6-cylinder engine with a volume of 3,210 cubic centimeters) and 735i (3,430 "cubes" rounded for some reason, but the eyes can be closed on this inaccuracy).
In 1980 he began bMW release 745i. Do you think she was equipped with a 4.5-liter engine? As if not like this: it was a motor from 732i with a turbocharger. Nevertheless, to underline greater performance and high-cost cars new version The representative sedan was deliberately assigned the "wrong", the highlightest index. By the way, in 1983 she had an engine from 735i with a turbocharger, but the index remained the same, 745i.
BMW 735i
However, an understatement of the real volume of the engine happened. So, the BMW E30 316I from 1982 to 1987 was produced with a motor volume of 1,766 cubic centimeters, and the status coupe of the 8th series was constantly modest: BMW 840ci C 1995 to 1999 was offered with 4.4-liter engine, 850ci was driven by 5.4-liter Motor, and flagship 850csi - as 5.6-liter.
Nevertheless, in recent years, 10 cases of "fraud" with indexes have become frequent. Consider several examples. "Unit" BMW 130i was produced from 2005 to 2013, 125i - from 2008 to 2013. It would be possible to assume that at least 125i had a smaller engine than in 130i, but in reality the same Motor N52B30 was used in different degrees of force - 218 hp. For 125i and 265 (258 C 2009) for 130i. Of course, from the point of view of marketing, the owner of 130i had to please and demonstrate superiority more powerful version "Units" over less powerful as a nameplate on the trunk lid. For the same reason, the indices of the current F20 114i, 116i, 120i are separated, which are aggregated with a 1.6-liter turbocharged engine N13B16.
BMW 125i.
BMW E63 among a number of modifications had 635D and 630i. The latter was cheapest (if this word is generally applicable to the premium Coupe of the Grand Trampamo class) among all versions of the 6th series, its engine volume was 2,996 cubic centimeters. At the most expensive 635D motor volume of 2,993 "Cube", i.e. formally less than 630i, but diesel power even after updating gasoline motor It remained more on the symbolic 14 hp I think no need to explain why the index diesel version More than gasoline ...
There are completely curious cases. You can guess that BMW F30 320i and 328i are equipped with different options same 2 liter gasoline engine. In addition, there are 320D and 328d. The nuance is that the engines in these machines are identical, but 328d is sold in the American market, under the tastes of buyers whose and "sharpen" name. After all, residents of the states do not complain cars with small motors ...
What is the result?
Unconditionally trust the numbers in the designation of the models now it is impossible. They turned into rather abstract values \u200b\u200bpointing only to the fact that within one series of a model with a smaller number in the index is less powerful than with large. Fortunately, in the letter prefix and suffixes, the truth is still true ...
I got a student who is engaged in science. And in science without abbreviations nowhere. Yes, and in ordinary written speech, including fiction, not to mention specialized, contractions like E.G., I.E. or all familiar etc. Darkness. Some of them came from Latin, but most are just abbreviations in English words. I offer you a list of the most frequently used abbreviations (places with examples and notes):
A.d. (Anno Domini) - year of our era
B.C. (Before Christ) - year BC
Please note that AD is placed in front of the date (AD64), BC after (300bc); When specifying the century and the other comes after Numenual (Second Century AD, Fourth Century BC)
approx. (Approximately / Approximate) - approximately approximately approximate
aVG. (Average) - medium, on average
cA. (Circa - /? s3? k? /) - approximately approximately: e.G. "People First Came to the Area CA 1700."
cENT. (Century, Centuries) - century, century
cF. (Confer, Compare) - see also, Wed, link, often found in books
cO. (column) - column
cONT (D). (Continued) - continued. This reduction can have a different value depending on the context, for example, Contained, Contents, Contraction, Continent etc.
cTR. (center) - center, central d. (DIED, DIED IN) - Died: e.G. "The Dean Of The University At That Time Was Sir James Stone (D. 1965)."
eD. (edited, Edition) - ed., Edition, published
e.G. (Exempli Gratia - for example) - for example. Please note that this cut is read exactly as "for example"! No unauthorized "and ji": e.G. "You can Use Different Adjectives to Describe It, E.G. Wonderful, Beautiful, Amazing or Splendid."
eSP. (Especially) - especially: e.G. "I Like Ice-Cream, ESP. Pistachio-Flavoured Ice-Cream."
eST (D). (Established / estimate) - based; Calculated, Evaluation: e.G. "He worked in td McGuire Est. 1987"; "HE Received Est. $ 10mln."
et al. (et alii) - and others (in the bibliography "with co-authors")
incl. (including) - including: E.G. "They Put Everything in One Box, Incl. Books on Chaucer."
hr. (Hours) - hour, hours: E.G. "This car canravert 230 km / hr."
max., min. (Maximum, Minimum) - maximum minimum
misc. (Miscellaneous) - Other: e.G. "The Shelf Was Full of Misc. Objects."
n.A.: 1) not applicable - not applicable to this case, not applicable: e.G. "This Formula Shows The General Law (N.A. in Acid Environment)";
2) not available, non-available - not available, no data
NB. (Nota Bene - Note Particularly) - note Ben, mark "Note Good, take note"
No. (Number) - number: E.G. "I GAVE HIM A MUG WITH THE TEXT" I Am Dad No.1 "."
pREV. (Previous) - Previous: e.G. "See prev. Page for more information."
pt. (Part) - Part: e.G. "You can Look it up in Quantum Physics Pt. II."
qt. (Quantity / Quart) - quantity; quart
rESP. (Respectively) - respectively: E.G. "Basic Earnings Increased 40% and 39% to $ 0.55 and $ 0.54 Resp."
sTD. (Standard) - Standard, Standard
vs. (Versus) - against: e.G. "We Went To See Alien vs. Predator"
w / (WITH) - C: e.G. "Add Sugar W / Cinnamon to The Batter."
w / O. (WITHOUT) - without: e.G. "There You Can Order Sandwiches W / O Mayo."
