Cleaning of snow and ice has always been considered one of the main problems of public utilities, and despite the constant introduction of new methods of saving from ice, salt is still in use. The Village collected 5 technologies for cleaning streets in those countries where it snows in winter, learned about their pros and cons, and took comments from ecologists, shoe makers and ordinary people.
SALT (NaCl)
PETERSBURG, MOSCOW, KIEV
Cheapness
Harm. Salt is a chloride, a very active substance. For example, a few years ago, it led to an accident at the Southern substation (Petersburg), severing the wires laid underground. Salt corrodes pipes, bridges, cars, causes allergies, damages shoes, clothes, paws of animals and historical monuments. Not to mention environment, as it gets into groundwater, soil and rivers.
Sidewalks are sprinkled with technical salt or salt mixtures based on it
Snow removal in Kiev
MOSCOW
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In cleaning up territories, the capital has advanced further than other regions. Moscow road workers are proud of their system of preventive measures: even before snow falls, the roads are treated with liquid reagents - a 28% solution of calcium chloride and sodium chloride (table salt). The processing is done on the basis of data from the meteorological service and a radar system capable of predicting the amount of precipitation with an accuracy of 1 mm of water or 1 cm of snow. Moscow utilities love reagents - this year for the first time they decided to sprinkle them on yards and sharply increased the volume of purchases of solid chemicals. |
270,000 tons of salt cover an area of 88 million square meters. m. In winter, cleaning Moscow roads takes 2.1 billion rubles a month. |
KIEV
PETERSBURG
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Also on the streets you can find sand and traces of the action of a special mixture "Bionord", which is used to clean the sidewalks. It includes three types of salt: calcium chloride, magnesium chloride and sodium chloride. For the winter, the city purchased 92,000 tons of Bionord. For snow porridge, which is obtained as a result of the action of salt, there is even a special name - sludge. Salt is capable of melting ice down to a temperature of minus 21 ° C, however, when the thermometer drops below minus 9–10 ° C, its effectiveness drops sharply. In Finland, salt is no longer used as soon as the temperature drops below minus 5 ° C. Finnish meteorologists say roads become less slippery at very low temperatures. |
Opinion: Chemicals on the roads |
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FRICTIONAL METHOD:
SAND AND STONE CRUSH
AUSTRIA, FINLAND, GERMANY, SWEDEN AND OTHERS
environmental friendliness, reusability
lingers on the carriageway for no more than half an hour:
it is blown away by the wind, by the wheels of cars and by the feet of pedestrians.
In Helsinki, snow is compacted and sprinkled with stone chips
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After much trial, error and scientific research, Europe has almost completely abandoned the use of chemicals to melt snow and ice. In Berlin, for example, the law permits the use of salt only on hazardous road sections. Chemicals are all too obvious harm to the environment and urban economy. Fine sand is also not the best option. It produces dust, gets into the lungs and is not recyclable. Whereas gravel and stone chips are environmentally friendly and economical, although initially they are more expensive than salt. |
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The method of scattering sand and other abrasive (hard and fine-grained) materials is called frictional: ice cannot be completely eliminated with this method, but traction with the road is improved. The main condition for using this technology is that the roads must be cleaned almost to asphalt immediately after or during a snowfall. In some European cities there are even special gravel boxes set up for pedestrians so that residents can scatter the sand themselves if it is very slippery. By the way, such boxes can sometimes be found in St. Petersburg, for example, on Bolshoy Sampsonievsky Prospekt and near the Staraya Derevnya metro station. |
In 2010, 22 million euros were allocated for winter road maintenance in Finland, but due to heavy snowfalls, the budget was exceeded by 17 million. |
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TORGEIR WAA METHOD
SWEDEN
efficiency, environmental friendliness, long-term result
special expensive equipment is needed
The method invented by Thorgeir Vaa is being piloted in Sweden
In 2004, Sweden introduced a new method of dealing with ice, which was invented by the Swedish scientist Torgeir Vaa. Fine sand in a ratio of 7 to 3 is mixed with hot water 90–95 ° C and spray on the streets. Hot sand melts into the snow and makes the surface rough. Such processing is enough for 3-7 days with daily traffic of about 1,500 vehicles. Or until another snowfall has passed.
ALTERNATIVE CHEMICALS
USA, CANADA, NEW ZEALAND
Magnesium chloride
high efficiency
more expensive than technical salt and causes
even more severe corrosion of metals
Great Salt Lakes in Utah
Americans and Canadians use mainly magnesium chloride, which is mined from the Great Salt Lakes in Utah, to clean streets and sidewalks. MgCl2 contains less chlorine than other chlorides, and its efficiency is much higher at lower consumption. In the winter of 2010, Maryland spent $ 50 million on road cleaning, and Virginia $ 79 million. Canada spends $ 1 billion annually on road maintenance in winter.
Calcium magnesium acetate
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NO FUNDS
JAPAN AND THE REST 230 COUNTRIES
After a snowfall in Aomori Prefecture
In the mountains of Japan, up to several meters of snow falls during the winter, and in cities - 15–20 cm per night. As a result, by the end of winter, sidewalks and intercity roads turn into narrow snowy canyons with walls 2 human height or more. However, the roads in Japan are not processed in any way, only the snow is removed. Therefore, ice in cities is not such a rare occurrence. At the same time, studded tires are prohibited in the country. By the way, snow removal near houses and on sidewalks is the responsibility of the residents themselves.
ECOLOGIST'S OPINION
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One of the main tasks of the state is to ensure the safety of citizens, including in winter time... This requires deicing reagents - solid (free-flowing), liquid or combined chemicals that can melt snow, ice and snow-ice formations, as well as reduce the freezing point of brine, which consists of melt water and a reagent. Most often, the following types of salts are used as reagents: chlorides, acetates, urea, formates, nitrates.
These substances have different working temperature, melting ability (the ability of 1 gram of a substance to melt a certain amount of ice), corrosiveness to metal and concrete, price, impact on shoes, animals, soil, on human health.
Here is a summary table in which we will analyze the main properties and characteristics of products designed to combat ice.
We will compare according to the following indicators: operating temperature, melting capacity, corrosivity, cost, impact on the environment, urban infrastructure and human health.
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Reagent name |
Working temperature |
Melting ability |
Corrosive activity |
Price |
Impact on humans and the environment |
Output |
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Sand-salt mixture |
before 12 ° C (judging by sodium chloride (the only melting substance in the composition)) |
practically zero melting capacity, since the proportion of salt in the mixture is negligible (about 5%) - it is mainly added to prevent sand caking |
high in relation to metal structures and cement concrete |
about 1 200 rubles per ton |
according to WHO, it causes oncological, allergic and cardiovascular diseases. Leads to exacerbation of diseases of the respiratory system |
Ineffective in the fight against ice. Does not increase traction, causes “secondary” icing. It leads to dustiness in the air, which has a negative effect on the human body. Leads to clogging of storm drains, which is very expensive to clean. High costs for distribution and subsequent cleaning. |
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Sodium chloride (technical salt, halite) |
before 12 ° C |
at temperatures below -10 ° C - very low melting capacity |
0.8 mg / cm 2 Day - rather high |
about 3500 rubles per ton, at a low price it has a high consumption rate - 150-200 g / m2 |
sodium chloride promotes soil salinization, aggressive towards footwear and fur |
Sodium chloride has a relatively low price, but at the same time a high consumption rate, negatively affects the soil, and has a high corrosive activity. Only works effectively down to -12 ° C. Application in settlements forbidden. |
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Calcium chloride |
34 o C |
lower melting capacity than sodium chloride |
has one of the highest levels of corrosivity - 1.02 mg / cm 2 days |
price - from 15,000 rubles per ton, but at the same time low consumption - 50-70 g / m2 |
negative effect on shoes, irritating the skin |
The biggest plus of this substance is its low operating temperature. For the rest, there are practically only drawbacks - high corrosive activity, impressive price, negative impact on people's health and on their property. |
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Magnesium chloride (bischofite) |
18 about C (solution) |
have a 2.0-2.5 times lower melting capacity than anti-icing materials based on other salts. This is due to the fact that the active substance in solid bischofite is not more than 48%. The rest is crystalline moisture |
solid bischofite can have a value of 1.1 mg / cm 2 * days (when exposed to steel grade 3) with an allowable value of 0.8. |
the cost of bischofite is about 20,000 rubles per ton |
Bischofite contains compounds of potentially toxic elements (first and second hazard classes): heavy metals - selenium, fluorine, bromine. That is, in high concentrations, this substance is dangerous to plants and animals, as well as to humans. Bischofite has a detrimental effect on plants, in agriculture it is used as a desiccant |
In 2004, the use of magnesium chloride as a deicing material was banned in Moscow. The anti-icing agent Bischofite threatens human health and harms the environment. environment. |
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Potassium chloride |
4 ° C |
melting capacity is low |
about 18,000 rubles per ton |
beneficial effect on soil, fertilizer, low toxicity |
Due to its low melting ability, this salt is used mainly as a component in other anti-icing agents, as well as in specialized areas - kindergartens and so on. |
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Nitrates |
30 o C |
high melting capacity |
from 60,000 rubles per ton |
nitrates are destructive to nature, have a bad effect on soil. In Moscow, the use of nitrates was banned in 2010 after an experimental winter |
the use of nitrates in settlements is extremely limited: bridges, overpasses |
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Acetates |
down to -50 ° C |
high melting capacity |
low corrosive effect |
90,000 rubles per ton |
use in settlements is prohibited due to the smell of vinegar. In some cases, it causes suffocation, nausea and dizziness in people. |
Acetate-based deicing agents are used only in well-ventilated areas (bridges, flyovers, or airfields). They cannot be used in cities. |
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Formates |
down to -19 ° C |
high melting capacity at -5 ° C and -10C |
0.14 mg / cm 2 * day - the corrosive activity of sodium formate is 8-10 times lower than that of sodium chloride and calcium chloride |
from 30,000 rubles per ton |
do not have a harmful effect on shoes and fur, decompose in soils. Formates - organic salts that do not harm human and animal health, is a part of some medicines, is used as a feed for animals (in particular, rabbits) so that food is better absorbed |
Hazard class for formates 4th - low-hazard substances. Considering that sodium formate is able to significantly reduce the negative properties of chlorides, at the moment this substance is widely used as a component in salt mixtures, which makes it possible to achieve a ratio of "efficiency and economic feasibility." In its pure form, sodium formate is used at airfields, as well as in park and forest areas and in specially protected areas. The use of sodium formate in its pure form in cities is impossible due to its high price, but multicomponent anti-icing reagents with this substance in the composition are recommended for use. |
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Urea |
up to -4 o C |
low melting capacity |
does not adversely affect metals |
from 8000 rubles per ton |
does not affect footwear and fur, is positive to plants and soils (it is a fertilizer), low toxicity. But at the same time, its use is not recommended near water bodies. |
used as a component for multicomponent deicing agents. |
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Multicomponent reagents with formates ("Bionord" type) |
up to -25 o C |
high melting capacity |
low corrosiveness |
from 15,000 rubles per ton |
do not cause allergies, decompose in soil, safe for humans and animals. |
Thanks to average price and a low consumption rate of 50-70 g / m2, the use of multicomponent reagents is beneficial. The addition of sodium formate to the composition of the products minimizes the negative impact on metal and concrete. They do not pollute the soil, are removed from it within 72 hours, decaying into carbon dioxide and water. Multicomponent anti-ice reagents such as "Bionord" combine the high melting ability of chlorides and the environmental friendliness of formates. |
We conclude that almost all ice-melting substances, if they are used as one-component anti-ice reagents, have their drawbacks. Therefore, in terms of combining efficiency, environmental friendliness and favorable price Most suitable for use in an urban environment are multicomponent deicing agents with sodium formate in the composition.
An example is the Bionord product, which is produced by the Ural Plant of Deicing Materials (UZPM). It is a reagent based on several chloride salts and formates. In Moscow, anti-icing reagents of the Bionord type have been used for more than 4 years, during this time the number of injuries among pedestrians has decreased by 2.5 times, the number of accidents due to unsatisfactory road conditions has decreased by 30%, despite the growth of the vehicle fleet ... Also, the percentage of soil salinity has decreased by 2 times. Compositions of this type are considered the safest chloride-based deicing materials in Russia.
Defroster for glass- a product that can quickly melt ice, frost or snow. This liquid is often also called "anti-ice", although this is not entirely true. The prefix "anti-" means that the reagent is to be removed and not removed. But, nevertheless, it is worth considering both types. All have one goal - good visibility in winter. In addition, the compositions of liquids have common components.
To defrost frozen glass, you need an active solution, which has a very low temperature freezing. Typically, these products contain isopropyl or other alcohol. At home, the properties of salt and vinegar are also often used.
Why is it needed and why is this happening
De-icing agent is used to quickly, and remove ice from glass without damage... Yes, of course, you can use a scraper, but ... Firstly, it is not always advisable (after freezing rain), secondly, it takes longer and, thirdly, you can damage the glass. A good visibility - safety guarantee on the road... Therefore, the driver needs to clear windshield and at least part of the rear, front side and always mirrors.
On those cars where there is a built-in heated mirrors and rear window, you just need to turn on the appropriate mode and remove the thawed ice with a soft cloth. But for the front, a defroster is a must for all car owners.
Why are glasses covered with ice?
Someone may ask: “Why does the glass freeze at all? Why do you have to get up early every day and go to clean the windshield of the car? " I came to work in winter, got out of the car for a few hours, came back, and the glass was covered with hoarfrost. Every time you have to scrape.
In winter, drivers turn on the stove, which naturally heats the interior, including the glass. Therefore, during cooling, either condensation forms (which subsequently freezes), or, if it snows, water crystals melt in the form of snow, and then turn into an ice crust.
The glasses are sweating
One of the reasons for fogging windows in a car is wet seat upholstery or a damp carpet. It can also occur due to stove failure and impaired air recirculation, when ventilation is turned on inside the cabin, and air intake ...
How can you defrost glass?
Not many drivers are struggling with freezing glass in a car special means... They prefer to defrost the old fashioned way - blowing the windshield warm air from the stove and in the back include heating. And in vain, because if you do everything in a complex, it will be much faster.
Carefully use the stove!
Absolutely all car owners are struggling with icy glass using car stove, but you need to be careful! Select the slowest and coolest setting when directing air towards the windshield only.
Blow immediately very warm or hot air is not allowed- due to a sharp drop, the windshield may burst.
By the way, glass cracking awaits you even if it is warmed up with hot water. Watering glass from a teapot, whether it be windshield or side glass, is CATEGORALLY IMPOSSIBLE!
So what can you do to overcome frozen glass? Firstly, it is really neat to use the standard features, and secondly, buy special winter chemistry- the aerosol in the can can both prevent icing and remove the already formed ice. Most a budget option – make anti-ice with your own hands.
The essence of any composition is the presence of a substance that can lower the freezing point. Various alcohols are just that. For example: isopropyl, ethyl alcohol, denatured alcohol and methanol (the last two should be used with caution, as they are harmful to humans). Since they are very volatile, auxiliary ingredients are mixed in order to retain them on the surface. Such as glycerin, oily substances (although they leave streaks) and a few others.
Popular practice says that not only alcohols can be defrosted. To remove already formed icing, they successfully use vinegar, table salt and even a bar of laundry soap... True, soap is used as "anti-ice" to prevent freezing. The main requirement for soap is that it should be just "household".
Is it possible to make a glass defroster with your own hands?
Self-preparation of liquid for defrosting car glass
Almost all offered defrosters have a common active ingredient - alcohol. So you can easily prepare your own product for removing ice at home. It is only important to observe the proportions, as well as find a suitable type of alcohol-containing liquid. A folk remedies and does not have to be specially cooked at all. You just take it in your hands and rub the glass of the car so that it does not freeze and the ice melts.
In most cases, a self-made defroster will not only not be inferior to the purchased one in terms of efficiency, but also, plus everything, is almost absolutely free. Suffice it to recall the school chemistry course.
5 recipes for how and where to prepare a defroster for auto glass
Most a good option – mix pure isopropyl with pure ethyl alcohol... But where to get it, that isopropyl? Therefore, it is better to use more affordable means. So, a do-it-yourself glass defroster can be prepared if you have:
Salt
To prepare the solution, you will need two tablespoons per 1 cup of ordinary table salt water. After soaking a soft sponge with such a salty solution, wipe the glass until frost and ice come off it. Then wipe dry with a soft cloth.
Please note that salt adversely affects paintwork and rubber seals, so glass should not be processed too abundantly.
It is best to pour salt into a roll of gauze cloth and apply it to the glass, so there will be no contact with the paint or rubber seals... However, streaks may appear, which are then removed with a dry cloth.
Ethanol
You can use a liquid containing a sufficient concentration of ethyl alcohol. The solution is evenly applied for a couple of minutes and then the remaining ice must be removed with a rag. Both technical and food (ethyl) alcohol are suitable. Usually, a hawthorn tincture is bought in a pharmacy for such purposes. But in general, this is not important, any alcohol-containing solution will do.
Non-freezing + alcohol
Often, glass is simply sprinkled with "non-freeze", although it is suitable only in cases of light frost, otherwise it will only get worse. This liquid is an aqueous solution of isopropyl. In fact, it was created so as not to freeze quickly, but only on the already WARM glass, while cleaning in motion. So if you try to remove the snow, it will only turn into a dense ice crust. It is better to supplement such a product with C₂H₅OH concentrate.
Glass cleaner + alcohol
Enough effective remedy for defrosting glasses can be prepared from a spray for washing glass surfaces and alcohol. The maximum result is achieved in a 2: 1 ratio. For example, 200 ml. alcohol add 100-150 grams of glass liquid. In very severe frosts, you can do 1: 1, so as not to get the opposite effect.
You can use the mixture in the morning to defrost ice by spraying it through a spray bottle.
Vinegar solution
You can also dissolve ice on glass and car mirrors with ordinary 9-12% vinegar. The freezing point of the vinegar solution is below -20 ° C (60% vinegar essence freezes at -25 degrees Celsius).
The most percussive liquid that you can make with your own hands for quick defrosting of glass is a cocktail of alcohol (95%), vinegar (5%) and salt (1 tablespoon per liter).
You can use all the tips even without the presence of a spray bottle, simply pouring solutions onto a frozen surface or a cloth towel for wiping. The only drawback is that liquids will be used up faster.
If you have tested these and other methods for removing ice crust or preventing icing, please leave your feedback. Write in the comments to share your experience, do not be selfish!
In the city, deicing reagents are for us the embodiment of real evil: they rust cars, shoes fail, pets get sick, lawns and trees dry up. Therefore, in suburban life, you want to do without them. Well, or at least use the safest and most environmentally friendly around your home. How to choose them?
The safest
To begin with, the existence of safe and environmentally friendly deicing agents used in civilized Europe is nothing more than a myth. All over the world, three substances are used to combat snow and ice - sodium chloride (table salt), magnesium chloride (bischofite) and calcium chloride. Specific preferences are determined by the proximity of cities to a particular deposit: salt is far from being transported. That is why bischofite is especially popular in the USA, and sodium chloride (halite) in Europe. All of these substances have approximately the same effect on humans and plants.
It is a matter of the quantities used and the method of spraying. For example, in Berlin, before the expected freeze, it is recommended to use only 20 g of sodium chloride per square meter. To understand how little it is, try to spread a tablespoon of salt evenly over a meter by meter patch. Just like that, without special devices it will not work. That is why dosing seeders are needed for reagents!
By the way, contrary to popular belief, salts used as deicing agents must be cleaned of various mechanical and chemical impurities. Thus, sodium chloride used to fight ice can be compared in purity only with table salt of the "extra" class. Tatyana Alekseeva, technologist of the Ronova Group of Companies, says that pedestrian zones and sidewalk paths are prohibited to be treated with chemicals. To combat icing, sand is used here - this is the most budgetary option, as well as granite or marble chips.
The result of the ideal winter maintenance of the territory is the absence of snow and ice on it, dry clean asphalt, on which both drivers and pedestrians can comfortably move.
Where, what and how much?
Many people think they can buy a bag of safe, environmentally friendly reagent and take it easy. Alas, there is no universal reagent.
Bogdan Vodopyan, director of business development at ShelterLogic (manufacturer of the Rockmelt line of reagents), told in what cases which reagent is useful.
Snow-free path. Any reagent can be used down to -7 ° C. The smaller its particles, the better. The maximum dose is 70 g / m2 (three tablespoons).
If the temperature drops, then table salt stops working. If you have a special technique that allows you to wet the wetting salt grains at the time of spraying, you can work with sodium chloride further. Well, and near your own home, it is better to simply use a reagent consisting of sodium chloride with the addition of calcium chloride. The latter absorbs moisture from the air and the salt continues to "work".
Roll-forward track. Here, on the contrary, salts are needed in the form of large granules. They literally "drill the ice." But if the temperature has dropped below -10 ° C, it is no longer recommended to remove ice from the tracks. It is better to use abrasive materials - marble or granite chips, sand. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. The marble, crumbling, gives white staining marks. But it (if, of course, a little) in the summer can not be removed. It will gradually decompose in the soil.
Granite chips do not stain the floor in the house, but at the end of winter it must be collected from the paths. Otherwise, you can slip on it and get hurt.
Sand is an excellent abrasive, especially if there is no danger of it clogging storm water. But they bring it to us often dirty, with an admixture of clay - with all the ensuing consequences (and it fights poorly with ice, and the dirt spreads).
Porch, open veranda. The optimal reagent is magnesium chloride (bischofite). The fact is that this salt, with numerous temperature fluctuations, least of all destroys floor coverings (tiles, decking, etc.)
Ice-covered gate. The long January thaw led to the appearance of a huge number of puddles. When the frost hit, many were unable to open the gate to the site or garage doors. To cope with the thick ice crust, it is useless to pour in fine salt - you just get salt puddles. Use large salt granules. Distribute them evenly in trouble spot and in 6-10 hours you will get perforated ice, which can be easily broken with a shovel.
Bath path. If you like to plunge into an ice hole after the steam room or just lie in the snow, treat the path from the bath with table salt (coarse abrasives will not work here - you can get hurt).
By the way, table salt will the best choice if you have pets. Just don't go overboard with the quantity.
Selection of management companies
Many companies serving the territories of suburban settlements take into account the dislike of Muscovites for reagents and try to do without them. This happens in the townhouse village "Little Scotland" and in the various villages of Villagio Estate, where the emphasis is on the timely clearing of the territory from snow. They fight the ice by sprinkling the paths with sand. Antonina Zelinskaya, director of the Managing Organization “Ecoservice Obninsk”, says that they use a sand-salt mixture and sand in the “Ekodolie Belkino” residential complex.
The largest assortment of anti-icing materials is available in the Dubrovka residential complex. Depending on the weather conditions, halite (produced by Artyomsol), calcium chloride (Eismelt), a mixture of calcium and sodium chlorides (Ratmix) and specially prepared granite chips are used here. The policy of the management company is to make cleaning for mechanical cleaning of the territory, to use reagents as little as possible.
By the way, the responsibilities of management companies usually include maintaining access roads, playgrounds, and walking areas in proper form. Individual households are looked after for an additional fee. Some of the residents asks to have a parking space cleared for him, and someone also orders the clearing of paths on the site.
The name "reagent" means that the given substance is reacting. In our case, we are talking about a reaction with ice, which the reagents melt by interacting with it. Therefore, for example, granite or marble chips cannot be called a reagent, since it does not melt the ice, but simply makes it less slippery. Chemicals are made on the basis of various substances, most of which are chlorides.
Sodium chloride
These are currently the most common reagents- common table salt technical purpose... There are several degrees of cleaning. For example, pure sodium chloride is also used for descaling industrial boilers. Among the main advantages of this tool are its efficiency and economy. In frosts down to -15 degrees Celsius, salt works flawlessly. Due to its low cost, utilities pour it onto the roads with a generous hand, due to which the main disadvantages of this material are clearly manifested - it corrodes metals and poisons roadside vegetation, disrupting the composition of the soil.
Modified calcium chloride
Most popular reagents based on calcium chloride in the capital, where the authorities prohibit the use of salt to combat ice. Usually, calcium chloride is sprayed as a solution along the road, so dispenser trolley you will not need it when using it. True, after the first days of using this material in the capital, its obvious drawback was revealed - it itself significantly worsens the adhesion of the wheels of cars to the road. That is, destroying the ice, such reagents themselves act as ice. The fact is that calcium chloride attracts moisture to itself, which is why the road quickly becomes wet. In addition, the effect of using this product lasts no more than three hours, so its consumption is very high.
Bischofite
This is the salt of the dried up ancient ocean, the main component of which is magnesium chloride. It is usually used as a dry material, so it will require reagent trolley... Among the main advantages of such a reagent is the possibility of it effective application even in severe frosts (up to -30 Celsius). It is also extremely gentle on the environment and even stimulates the growth of roadside vegetation. They are made on the basis of this natural mineral.
Various acetates and mixtures of acetates with chlorides are also used to treat roads from ice.
