Learning English vocabulary is one of the main stages in learning a language. This is what many linguists say, i.e., putting vocabulary on one side of the scale and grammar on the other, they believe that the first will outweigh. Where is the truth?.. Let's figure it out! Perhaps it is not for nothing that “in the beginning was the Word...”, and even if not in the most theological sense. And if you use logic, you can build a deductive chain: for interpersonal communication and designation of objects, a person needed a tool - a word (lexeme) - this is the basic unit of vocabulary. But when the need arose to give an invisible series of sounds (the spoken word) a physical, visible form, then writing was born, and then grammar. This is exactly what needed to be proven.

Analysis of English vocabulary by language sources

Now it is clear why linguist teachers always devote more time to studying vocabulary. We will help you independently study and understand the basics of vocabulary, and then choose the language category that best suits your goals and needs. In the Germanic group of languages, English has settled into a dominant position due to its increased popularity and high degree of distribution throughout the globe. It is a very progressive, ever-changing language. English vocabulary is very colorful and multifaceted, so it is important to approach its study from the right angle.

Two etymological groups of English vocabulary

Initially, it is necessary to indicate the differentiation of vocabulary into two etymological subgroups, i.e., according to its origin, it is divided into:

1. Native words - original (native) dictionary
2. Loanwords (borrowings) - borrowed (borrowed) dictionary

Native lexicon - native (original) vocabulary consists of terms that come to us from Ancient British - ancient British, as well as Anglo-Saxon - Anglo-Saxon languages, including those that contain suffixes and prefixes, in addition to the original root word.

These languages, in their geographical and temporal evolution, inevitably collided with Old Norse, hence the partial similarity of some words in seemingly different languages. The subgroup of native vocabulary is quite small and accounts for no more than 30% of the total vocabulary of the English vocabulary. However, this same 30% is also the most common and frequently used in common English speech. In addition, native words have the greatest valence (connective force) and range of use, and are more polysemantic (polysemantic), so they often form stable phrases and phrases.

Examples of words belonging to the original vocabulary

abroad	abroad, away from home	drop	a drop	hammer	hammer
ache	pain	ear	ear	hunt	hunt, hunt
apple	apple	moon	moon, lunar month	jerk	scumbag, jerk
baby	child	job	work, service	fast	fast
calf	calf	feel	feel	lamb	lamb
chicken	chick	gate	gate, entrance	life	life, longevity
dairy	diary, diary	goose	goose	eldritch	creepy
narrow	narrow, cramped	stone	stone, hailstone, stone	tree	wood, shoe rack
vixen	fox, vixen	woman	woman	year	year, age

Loanwords - borrowed words- these are words that came from any foreign language (source or primary source) and were adjusted to the model of the original words of the recipient’s language. Very often, without a thorough etymological analysis, it is almost impossible to identify a “foreign” word, especially if it was borrowed a long time ago. The most effective methods of borrowing words from another language are interaction and communication with representatives of other nations. It is important to note that a borrowed word is not always native to the source language. Here it is important not to confuse the source of borrowing (the source of the loan) and the origin of borrowing (the original source of the loan): the word originates in the original source, and the word is borrowed from the source (i.e. the source also borrowed this lexeme at one time). And also, the more similar the structure of two interacting languages, the easier it is for words from one to penetrate into the other.

Methods of borrowing in English vocabulary

The stock of borrowed terminology is formed in three possible ways:

1. Borrowing proper - direct borrowing
2. Loan translation (calque) - literal translation of a phrase or expression from the source language into English
3. Semantic loan - semantic borrowing, i.e. an already existing word in the English language is assigned the meaning of the word from the source language

Over the 16 centuries of its formation, the English language has undergone enormous changes. He was influenced by the warlike barbarian tribes of the Scandinavians, “running nearby”, cunning Roman merchants, French neighbors - conquerors and fashionistas, highly developed German friends and, of course, the first Greek philosophers and scientists. Greek borrowings and Latin (Latinisms) are closely intertwined, since these two languages ​​are considered the ancestors of most European languages. However, Latin is still considered the main “donor” in this case.

The first wave of English Latinisms

The first adstrate (layer) reflects the trade and merchant relations that existed between the ancestors of the Anglo-Saxons (from central Europe) and Roman businessmen. These were mainly terms denoting goods, products, currency and related units of measurement.

Latin word	meaning	English word	translation
coin	metal plates	mint	mint coins
discum	disk, dish	dish	dish
uncia	ounce (measure of weight)	ounce	ounce
pondo	measure of weight	pound	lb.
cysta	box, storage	chest	chest, wardrobe
vinum	wine	wine	wine
caseus	cheese	cheese	cheese
butyrum	oil	butter	butter
pipere	peppercorns	pepper	pepper
millia passu	distance (conventional thousand steps)	mile	mile
pirum	pear	pear	pear
presicum	peach	peach	peach

Later, words used in construction, marine terminology, and units of length were added to the first layer.

Latin word	meaning	English word	translation
portus	pier, harbor	port	port, city
ponto	ship, bridge	punt	flat-bottomed skiff, sail
campus	camp, halt	Camp (campus)	Camp (territory) of college, school
colonia	settlement, conquered territory	colony	colony, village
strata via	stone paved road	street	Street
vallum	fortress wall, rampart	wall	wall
castra	fortress, military camp	сhester*	names of a number of cities of the same name in the USA and England

*chester is also included in the names of other cities - Rochester, Manchester, Cholchester, etc.

Second wave of English Latinisms

The second adstrate of Latinisms was formed during the emergence of Christianity as the main religion among the English (VI-VII centuries AD). The language of church services and lessons in monastic schools was Latin, as a result of which many church and scientific terms migrated to English.

Latin word	meaning	English word	translation
candela	candle	candle	candle, shine through
scrinium	casket, tomb	shrine	tomb, crypt
episcopus	caretaker, bishop	bishop	1.bishop 2.bishop (chess)
monachus	monk	monk	monk
presbyter	priest	1.priest 2.presbyter	1. priest 2. presbyter, elder
nonna	nun	nun	nun
monasterium	monastery	1.monastery 2.minster	1.monastery 2.cathedral, church at the monastery
magister	teacher	master	owner, master
school	school	1.school 2.scholar	1. school 2. philologist, student
canon	canon	canon	1. criterion 2. church canon
versus	poetry	1.verse 2.verse	1. against, in comparison with... 2. verse
papirus	papyrus paper	1.papyrus 2.paper	1. papyrus (rast) 2. paper
grammar nota	grammar	grammar	grammar, basics
notarius	document legitimator	notary	notary
theater	theater	theater	theater
rosa	rose	rose	rose, pink (color)
leo	a lion	lion	a lion

The third wave of English Latinisms

The third and final wave of Latinisms stretched from the Renaissance to the times of the STR (scientific and technological revolution) and embraced all spheres of science, culture and everyday life, as well as literature, politics, philosophy and religion. Many words penetrated through literary (book) means, others through oral communication. The volume of the third layer is very large and partly consists of internationalisms of Latin origin, so we will consider only its most widely used elements (lexemes).

Latinisms of the third adstratus
frequency	frequency, frequency
locution	expression, idiom
medium	way, means
memory	memory, recollection
tower	tower
optimum	optimal value
quantum	size, quantity
oscillation	oscillation, swaying
ratio	coefficient, proportion
emit	release, throw away
folio	sheet, infolio
formula	formula
superior	highest, senior
detection	detection, discovery

Below are examples of internationalisms:

internationalisms
appendicitis	appendicitis
insulin	insulin
aspirin	aspirin
pediatrics	pediatrics
energy	energy
atom	atom
calories	calorie
radius	ray, radius
antenna	antenna
stimulus	stimulus
idea	idea
bonus	bonus
radiator	radiator
defect	defect

Greek borrowings from English vocabulary

Initially, Greek lexemes penetrated into English through intermediary languages: Latin (bishop, abbot, angel, tragedy, devil) or French (fancy, idea, chronicle, catalogue). However, during the Renaissance, after mass culturalization, when Greek literature became more popular, many words from the sphere of art and culture migrated to English.

Greek loanwords	translation
abacus	abacus, abacus
academy	academy
aesthetic	aesthetics
agnost	agnostic, skeptic
agony	agony, torment
amphora	amphora, ancient vase
archetype	archetype, prototype
axiom	postulate, axiom
Baptist	Baptist, Baptist
Baryton	baritone
catharsis	catharsis, cleansing
dialect	dialect

Greek loanwords	translation
hero	hero
hedonism	love of life, hedonism
hyperbole	hyperbole, exaggeration
entropy	entropy, uncertainty
gloss	gloss, gloss
gramme	gram
enigma	mystery, enigma
ephemeral	ephemeral, short-lived
epicee	epic
euphemism	euphemism (rudeness)
dialogue	dialogue

Gallicisms (French loanwords)

In the 11th century and for the next three centuries, northern England was under Norman occupation, which led to a massive "invasion" of Old French words into the English language - these were mainly administrative, legislative and military terms. Many everyday terms were also used. It must be remembered, as we noted earlier, that a significant part of the French vocabulary consisted of Latin borrowings. So the French language served not only as a primary source, but also as an intermediary (source) between Latin, Old Germanic and English.
It is clear that some words undergo so-called assimilation (change in form, meaning, adjustment to the English template), while others retain their original form. French vocabulary still influences English today through many fashion trends. Next we present a table of the most common Gallicisms:

Words that have retained their original form	translation
apropos	By the way
beau	dandy, dandy, suitor
beret	beret
bonhomie	good nature
bourgeois	bourgeois, capitalist
chalet	chalet, country house
cordon bleu	master, skilled person
couture	sewing (high class)
espionage	espionage, surveillance
neé	nee (about married ladies)
penchant	affection, love
chamois	suede, chamois
risk	risky, reckless

Modified words:

French word source	translation	English word	translation
atourner	appoint (to a position)	attourney	lawyer, prosecutor, attorney
finer	complete (transaction) with payment	finance	income, finance
garder	store, guard	guard	security
jaiole	cell	jail	jail
jurejurer	to swear	jury	jury
lieu tenant	occupying place	lieutenant	lieutenant
medallie (lat.metallum)	medal metal	medal metal	medal metal
1. solidus (lat) 2. soudier	1. gold coin 2. payment for army service	soldier	soldier
parler (parlement)	speak	Parliament	parliament
traite (lat. tractum)	agreement	treaty	contract, agreement
aperitif aperire	aperitif open (start)	Aperitif	aperitif
bacon baho (back meat)	pig back meat	bacon	bacon
boef	beef	beef	beef
cafe	coffee	coffee	coffee
menu	detailed list	menu	menu
jus	juice	juice	juice
omelette alumette	omelette blade (associative)	omelet	omelette
pique-nique	eating in nature	picnic	picnic
1.salade 2.salar (Latin)	1. salad 2. salt (season)	salad	salad
restaurant restaurer	restaurant to improve your health	restaurant	restaurant
soupe suppa (latin)	add soup, replenish	soup	soup
salsicia/salsus (lat) saussiche (normal)	saline	saussage	sausage, sausages
espice species (lat)	spices taste	spices	spices

Spanish loanwords

The Spanish adstrate of borrowings began to take shape in the 16th century thanks to colonization and trade relations, and later due to the military conflict that arose. Some lexemes passed from Spanish to English via French. Spanish also became the source of some early borrowed Arabic terms. As a result, English has a very diverse source of new words. A few examples follow:

English word	Russian translation	the word original	Russian translation
adios	parting	adios	Goodbye
adobe	adobe, clay mixture	tobe	brick
alphafa	alfalfa	al-fasfasah (Arabic)	alfalfa
alligator	alligator, crocodile	el lagarto	lizard
armada	armada	armada	armed man
banana	banana	banana (african)	banana
avocado	avocado	ahuacatl (Nahuatl adverb)	avocado
barbeque	B-B-Q,	barbacoa	barbecue, meat on the fire
bizarre	strange	bizarro	gallant
booby	dunce, blockhead	bobo	stupid, selfish
bravo	1.Bravo! 2. bandit, gangster	bravo	brave
burrito	burrito	burrito	little donkey
chili	chilli	Chile, chilli	from the island of Chile
chocolate	chocolate	xocolati	chocolate
corral	corral	corral	cattle pen
dorado	dorado (fish)	dorado	dorado
embargo	embargo, ban	embargo	blockade, ban
fajitas	fajitas (Spanish roast)	faja	belt
feast	party	fiesta	festival
jerky	jerky	ch'arki	jerky
macho	man, male	macho	man
machete	big knife	machete	machete
matador	matador	matador	murderer
mustang	wild Horse	mestengo	wandering, wandering
patio	courtyard, patio	patio	terrace, courtyard
pecadillo	sin, trifle	pecado	sin
quadroon	quadroon, one-quarter black race	cuateron	quarter
rodeo	rodeo	rodeo	rodeo, cowboy competition
savanna	savannah	zabanna	land of plants, green land
tobacco	tobacco	Tabaco (Caribbean)	tobacco
vinegarroon	type of scorpion	vinagron	sour wine, chatter
wrangler	debater	cabalango	groom

We looked at the types of the most widespread borrowings, although in reality the English language is much more diverse, and we still have to learn many words that came from Persian, Arabic, Indian, Dutch, Portuguese, Italian, Russian and other languages. But despite all the many non-native words, English does not lose its originality, it develops and becomes even more interesting every day and successfully continues to adopt the words it likes from its “relatives”, “neighbors”, etc.

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Marketing, offshore, Internet, dress code - it seems that the Russian language will soon have no Russian words at all, only Anglicisms. It is not surprising that the English language also has quite a lot of “foreign friends”, borrowings from other languages, and many of them have entered so deeply into English usage that it can be difficult to distinguish borrowed words from native English ones.

The original vocabulary of the English language reflects the most ancient concepts: natural phenomena (“moon” - moon, “night” - night), animals that are common in a given region or are important in the life of the English (“cat” - cat, “bull” - bull ), as well as the most frequently used verbs (“know” - to know, “work” - to work). These words are simple in form and mostly monosyllabic, which means that with the help of various suffixes and prefixes we can easily form their new forms (“know - knowledge - unknown”) and actively use them in stable phrases (“know the ropes” - thoroughly understand).

Where do borrowings come from in languages, and how did the English language, which was originally historically isolated from the mainland by a strait, receive foreign infusions into its structure? Like any other lands, Great Britain was subjected to attacks and conquests, and with its aggressive neighbors new words, concepts, and traditions arrived on the territory of the state, which gradually settled and mixed with national ones. Thus, with the Romans, Latin first came to Britain, and the Norman conquest brought with it French linguistic aspects, which were most firmly entrenched in English. The development of Britain into a superpower led the British to new territories, where, having encountered new concepts, they simply adopted the necessary words from the local peoples, for example, the English language took over the now irreplaceable Spanish “tomate”. At the present stage, the source of borrowing is international relations and tourism, because once an Englishman has tasted the refreshing Russian kvass, he will never forget the sonorous word “kvass”.

So, which languages ​​have most influenced our beloved English?

Scandinavian languages

In the 10th-11th centuries, the harsh Scandinavians, along with their conquests, brought their hardened language to the British Isles. The socio-economic and cultural development of both countries at this stage was very close, so the exchange of words took place at the level of objects already known to the British. Due to the fact that Scandinavian and English belong to the same language branch, borrowings took root very easily, and many philologists even consider these borrowings as interdialectal exchange. Be that as it may, it was the Scandinavians who brought into English the so familiar “angry” (evil), “fit” (suitable), “get” (receive), “skill” (skill), “happen” (happen).

French

The French language came to Britain with the Normans, who brought with their warlike swords the north-eastern vernacular of French, which greatly influenced the English language as we know it today. Having completely seized power on the islands, the Normans made French the official language, which is why most borrowings from French are words from the sphere of public administration, military affairs, and the organization of city life, for example, “government” - government, “village” - village, “victory” - victory. There are many French words among everyday common vocabulary, for example, “face” - face, “money” - money, “minute” - minute. Also, the English owe many word-forming elements to the French language, for example, such a convenient suffix - able (“acceptable” - acceptable, “adorable” - charming). Thus, French loanwords account for 29% of the modern vocabulary of the English language.

Latin language

Borrowings from the Latin language passed into English peacefully - trade, the development of science and art at different stages of historical development brought with them new words from the mainland into English, so these were words of an everyday nature (“pepper” - pepper, “wine” - wine) , religious concepts (“school” - school, “priest” - priest), scientific, technical, and especially medical terms (“microscope” - microscope, “laboratory” - laboratory). As is known, words when borrowed lose their original form, however, as for Latin borrowings, many of them are fixed in the language as so-called “quotations”, for example, “alma mater” about universities, “ex officio” - according to position. In general, Latin borrowings occupy another 29% of the modern vocabulary of the English language, and these borrowings are even collected in entire dictionaries and reference books.

Russian language

Our native Russian language also brought diversity to English, because philologists date the first borrowings from Slavic languages ​​to the 12th century, linking the modern word “milk” with the Old English “meolk”, which are the same roots as the Slavic word “milk”. An early borrowed word is also the word “sable” (sable), when sable fur was used as a product of exchange and a monetary unit in the 12th-13th centuries, it was simply necessary in the language. Later, Russian borrowings were associated with trade and economic relations, which brought the words “shuba”, “beluga”, “samovar” into English; they also appeared due to the interest of the British in the socio-political life of Russia (“Decebrist”, “nihilism” ). There are not so many Russian borrowings in the English language, but he also enriched English with new linguistic units and concepts.

Throughout the development of any language, it faces great influence from the languages ​​of neighbors, trading partners, and conquerors. Many linguists advocate clearing the language of external interference. This trend is usually called purism. Of course, each language must develop according to its own characteristic rules, like a painting by a skilled artist, maintained in the same style, otherwise the language is doomed to fade, but borrowings can significantly diversify linguistic forms, concepts and add bright touches to an impeccable canvas.

Big and friendly EnglishDom family

English is considered one of the richest languages ​​in the world. It contains about 200 thousand words of active vocabulary. Few languages ​​can match its richness of vocabulary. The reason for this is the word-forming abilities of the English language, as well as its ability to borrow words from other languages. Everyone knows that the vocabulary of the English language has truly absorbed a huge number of words from different languages ​​of the world, in this regard, we would really like to know from which languages ​​the vocabulary was borrowed and, finally, from which language of the world the most words were borrowed.

When a word is borrowed from one language to another, it is very difficult to predict what fate awaits it. A word can develop a new system of meanings for it and enter into new relationships in combination with other words in the vocabulary of the borrowing language, move away from its original state and therefore cease to be felt as a foreign element in the language. This, for example, happened with the noun stomach, which, while continuing to remain an anatomical term, became widely used and became part of phraseological units such as to have no stomach for something (to have no taste or desire for something), haughty stomach (arrogance), etc. This process is also observed in other languages. The influence of one language on another does not pass without leaving a trace. This process is observed in all languages ​​of the world, so this topic is relevant for all nations and nationalities. Of course, the language continues to expand through borrowings and borrowings help enrich the vocabulary of the language.

We believe that the topic of this research work is relevant for our time, since borrowing is an integral part of our modern life.

From our point of view, the main centers of attraction for new borrowings are

1. Everyday life in its everyday and cultural aspects:

Sushi, geisha, tenaki-sushi – Japanese;

Machine - French;

Harem – Arabic;

Hamburger – German;

Pizza, spaghetti, macaroni – Italian.

2. Social and political life:

Glasnost, perestroika, nomenclatura – Russian;

Viking – Scandinavian;

Hara-kiri, samurai – Japanese;

Bank, balcony, umbrella – Italian.

3. Sphere of culture (literature, cinema, theater, music, painting, etc.):

Ballet - French;

Karaoke, ikebana – Japanese;

Piano, opera, sonata - Italian.

4. Scientific and technical sphere:

Mechatronics - French;

Tenaki – Japanese.

5. World of sports:

Kimono, aiki-jitsu, aikido – Japanese.

Summarizing the above, it must be emphasized that without this layer it is impossible to imagine the entire corpus of new vocabulary of the English language. And, of course, foreign language borrowings played a huge role in the development of the English language.

3. Research methods

Collecting, processing, interpreting the material, as well as analyzing international words and questioning students on their knowledge of the meaning of international words, allowed us to study this topic more deeply and solve the research problem.

4. Goals and objectives of the study

The goal is to explore the process of interpenetration of words in the English language as it interacts with other languages. Identify sources, motivation, scope of borrowing, expand your horizons and vocabulary.

The objectives are to:

1) identify where and why the borrowed word came into English;

2) determine what changes its appearance caused in the vocabulary of the English language;

3) identify international words in the English language and point out some differences in the Russian and English languages;

4) establish the main methods of borrowing;

5) find out why English has a greater ability to borrow foreign words than any other language.

General characteristics of English borrowings

2. 1. The role and conditions of borrowing in the vocabulary

The role of borrowings in different languages ​​is not the same and depends on the specific historical conditions of the development of each language. In English, the percentage of borrowings is much higher than in many other languages, since for historical reasons it turned out, in contrast to many languages, to be very permeable. English, more than any other language, has the opportunity to borrow foreign words in conditions of direct direct contact with other languages: first in the Middle Ages from successive foreign invaders in the British Isles, and later in conditions of trade expansion and colonial activity of the British themselves.

Borrowing is one of the important ways to enrich vocabulary, but not the only one and not even the most important one.

We are interested in where and why the borrowed word came from and how it took root in the language, how it changed its meaning and what changes its appearance caused in the vocabulary of the language that adopted it.

The largest Russian linguist of the 19th century, A. A. Potrebnya, paid attention to the creative element in the process of borrowing. “To borrow,” he said, “means to take in order, perhaps, to contribute more to the treasury of human culture than you receive.”

A borrowed word usually takes on one or more meanings of words closest to it that already existed in the language. In this case, some secondary value may become central or vice versa. It can also happen, and often happens, that words that closely match the meaning of the new word are forced out of the language. This happens because the long-term existence of absolute or almost absolute synonyms in a language is always eliminated either by the delimitation of their meanings or by the displacement of unnecessary words from the language.

It should be emphasized that the consolidation of a borrowed word in a language does not necessarily lead to the displacement of the corresponding original one. The changes in vocabulary caused by it can be expressed in stylistic grouping or in the delimitation of meanings. For example, the borrowed word from the French language people pushed aside the original word folk. The word folk acquired additional meaning. It is used when talking about one’s own: family, fellow villagers, fellow countrymen, compatriots. This word is widespread in popular colloquial speech and in folk art and is not without reason included in the term folklore.

This or that influence of one language on another is always explained by historical reasons: wars, conquests, travel, trade, etc., which lead to more or less close interaction between different languages. The intensity of the influx of new borrowed words in different periods is very different. Depending on specific historical conditions, it either increases or falls.

Borrowing vocabulary can occur orally and in writing. In the case of oral borrowing, words quickly take root in the language. Words borrowed in writing retain their phonetic, spelling and grammatical features longer.

2. 2. Basic methods of borrowing

The main ways of borrowing vocabulary are the phonetic method, transliteration and tracing.

The phonetic method is a borrowing of words in which its sound form is preserved. In this way, the words football, trailer, jeans and others were borrowed from the English language. For example, ballet, bouquet and others were borrowed into English from the French regime.

Transliteration is another method of borrowing in which the spelling of a foreign word is borrowed: the letters of the foreign word are replaced with letters of the native language. Using this method, the words cruise (English cruise), motel (English motel), club (English club) were borrowed from English into Russian. Many proper names are also transliterated when borrowed from English: Washington (English Washington), Texas (English Texas ["teksəs]), London (English London). In English there are many words of Greek, Latin and French origin that have been preserved its own graphic features, although they are read according to the rules of the English language.

Tracing is a method of borrowing in which the associative meaning and structural model of a word or phrase are borrowed. When tracing, the components of a borrowed word or phrase are translated separately and combined according to the model of a foreign word or phrase. For example, the German noun Vaterland, translated in parts, gave the English tracing paper Fatherland; Russian noun suicide - calque of Latin suicide (sui self, cide - murder); The English noun self-service, borrowed into Russian, has the form self-service. The following phrases were borrowed by this method: vicious circle - vicious circle; masterpiece - masterpiece; rep pate - pseudonym; blue stocking blue stocking, learned woman and others.

2. 3. Sources of borrowings

1. French borrowings

The influence of the French language on English was especially strong during the period of French domination in the country (XI-XV centuries), when a national English language had not yet emerged. The French invasion of England in 1066 marked the beginning of the so-called period of the Norman Conquest. French was the official language of England for a long time, and there was bilingualism in the country.

During this period, words related to feudal relations (feudal, baron, vassal) were borrowed; almost all titles (peer, prince, count) and addresses sir and madam; words related to the dominant government and the state in general (state, people, nation, government, power, authority, etc.); words related to monetary relations (money, property); words denoting family relationships (parent, cousin, uncle, aunt, etc.); a large number of military terms (army, battle, victory, war, etc.); words denoting pleasure, entertainment (feast, pleasure, delight, comfort, etc.); legal terms (accuse, court, crime, etc.), etc.

The New English language takes shape during the Renaissance. Scientific works of this period are already written in English, but since before that, during the Middle Ages, the language of science was Latin and since the Renaissance was characterized by interest in the monuments of ancient culture, the use of style, rhetorical techniques of construction of Greek and Roman authors, it is completely It is natural that the replenishment of the dictionary and the creation of new scientific terminology was largely due to borrowings from Latin, as well as from Greek. This is how, for example, the terminology of philosophy, law, medicine, etc. was created.

In addition to French, a number of European languages ​​participated to a greater or lesser extent in enriching the vocabulary of the English language, for example, Latin, Dutch, Italian, Spanish.

2. Latin borrowings

A considerable number of words were borrowed from Latin into English. Here are the most common of them: street – paved (road); port – port; wall – shaft; vacuum - vacuum; wine – wine; inertia – inertia; mile - a thousand steps.

All these words were borrowed orally and entered the main vocabulary of the English language.

The largest number of words borrowed by the English language from the Latin language are so-called book borrowings. These are words that entered the language not as a result of direct, live communication between peoples, but through written documents, books, and so on. Most Latin book borrowings that have not previously been attested in English occur during the Renaissance in England. It is impossible to give a list of these words within the scope of this work; for this you need to compile a special dictionary.

3. Dutch borrowings

Even in the Middle Ages, there were quite close trade and industrial ties between England and the Netherlands. England recruited quite a significant number of Dutch and Flemish craftsmen of various specialties, mainly shipbuilders and weavers, to work in guild enterprises. There are especially many words of Dutch origin in the terminology of shipbuilding and navigation. These are, for example: cruise - to cruise, dock - dock, geef - reef (hole in the sail for a rope), skipper - skipper, yacht - yacht, etc. Weaving terms of Dutch origin, which entered the English language in the Middle English and earlier New English period . Such as: to gloss - to add shine to fabric, rock - spinning wheel, spool - bobbin, stripe - piece of fabric.

And also a special group of Dutch borrowings in the English language consists of art history terms that have entered the vocabulary of the English language. For example, landscape - landscape, maulstick - maulstick, etc.

4. Italian and Spanish loanwords

The Italian language also made a significant contribution to the vocabulary of the English language, starting around the 16th century. During the Renaissance, Italian culture, especially in the fields of music, painting, architecture, and literature, had a great influence on the culture of England; this was reflected, in particular, in the borrowing of many words related to the listed areas, already directly from the Italian language and in most cases, preserving their original form. These are the musical terms allegro, aria, legato, libretto, opera, sonata, soprano, tempo, trio; terms from the field of fine arts, for example, fresco, studio, terra cotta, etc. Words such as grotto, granite, fiasco, incognito, soda, umbrella also came into widespread use in England; including words that convey characteristic details of Italian life in the perception of English tourists, for example, macaroni, spaghetti, etc. In connection with the development of trade relations between England and Italy, such Italian words as bank - bank, Lombard - came into the English language Lombard (from the name of the Italian region of Lombardy, from where many moneylenders and money changers came out in the Middle Ages), traffic - trade and others.

The Spanish language contributed a number of its own words to the English vocabulary, and also served as a transmitter of many words from various languages ​​of the indigenous population of America.

In the English vocabulary you can count several dozen Spanish words borrowed directly from the Spanish language. For example, words such as: armada - navy, banana - banana, barbecue - lattice, bonanza - accumulation of rich ore, booby - fool, bravado - boasting, canyon - gorge, canoe - kayak, chilli - red pepper, chocolate - chocolate, cigar - cigar, negro - black man, potato - potato, tobacco - tobacco, tomato - tomato, tornado - whirlwind, vanilla - vanilla.

5. German borrowings

Modern English vocabulary also contains a number of borrowed German words. Most often, the influence of the German language manifests itself in the form of a phrase, such as: bolt from the blue - a bolt from the blue, chain-smoker - a heavy smoker, homesickness - homesickness, masterpiece - a masterpiece, place in the sun - a place in the sun, song without words - songs without words, storm and stress - storm and stress, swan song - swan song, one-sided - one-sided, time-spirit - spirit of the time, superman - superman, world-famous - world famous. Especially many words and expressions come from the terminology of classical German philosophy, for example, world-outlook.

6. Russian borrowings

The history of Russian borrowings in English reflects the history of trade and political relations between Russia and England. The Russian language began to influence the English language much later than other European languages, such as Latin, French, German, Italian, and Spanish.

Historical borrowings include a group of words from the pre-revolutionary, revolutionary and Soviet periods: arsheen (arshin), tzar (king), desyatin (tithe), kulak (fist), okhrana (security), bolshevik (Bolshevik), politbureau (politburo), sovnarhoz (sovnarkhoz), etc.

Everyday vocabulary demonstrates the originality of the way of Russian life: babushka (grandmother), blin (pancake), kovsh (ladle), zakuska (snack), kasha (porridge), samovar (samovar), vodka (vodka), etc. Words of this group found when describing Russian life.

Biogeographic vocabulary is made up of words denoting plants, animals, natural phenomena and zones: badiaga (badiyaga), zubr (bison), tur (tour), sable (sable), suslik (gopher), beluga (beluga), buran (blizzard) , purga (blizzard), steppe (steppe), etc.

Socio-political vocabulary is represented by words denoting the socio-political structure of Russia at the present stage: perestroika (perestroika), glasnost (glasnost), intelligentsia (intelligentsia), Russianness (Russian spirit), Duma (Duma), apparat (apparatus), chinovnik ( official), starosta (elder), etc.

Vocabulary associated with art includes words of original Russian meaning: balalaika (balalaika), bylina (episode), gusli (harp), prisiadka (squat).

Army vocabulary - represented by such famous words as Kalashnikov (Kalashnikov), Katyusha (Katyusha), stavka (rate), feldsher (paramedic).

In conclusion, it should be noted that Russian borrowings also played a big role in improving the modern philosophical and political terminology of all languages, including English.

Having examined all sources of borrowing in the English language and analyzed statistical data from the Internet (see appendices p. 19), we can confidently say that the percentage of borrowings from other languages ​​is very high.

2. 4. International words

A special group consists of international words. It often happens that when denoting an important new concept, a word is borrowed not into one language, but into many languages. Thus, an international fund of vocabulary is being created, which includes international terminology of various fields of human activity: politics, philosophy, science, technology, art, as well as many abstract words.

International, or international words, borrowed from one source, have graphic and sound similarities and, coinciding to some extent in meaning, constitute, as it were, the common heritage of a number of languages ​​due to the vocabulary of the ancients, i.e. Latin and Greek (democracy, proletarian, philosophy , atom, modern, program, system).

The other part of them comes from modern languages: soviet, kolkhoz, sputnik - from Russian revolution, bourgeois, telegraph - from French football, telephone, cruise, motel, club, analysis, army, communism, culture, nation, function, instruction, international, geometry, geography, mathematics, physics, philosophy. This also includes a large number of terms from physics, chemistry, biology, physiology, etc.

From the above examples, we see that many terms belong to international vocabulary, that is, they are the property of not only English, but also a number of other languages.

Practical part

As a result of borrowing, the English language was replenished with international words, which are understood as words that are found in many languages ​​of the world, but have minor phonetic differences associated with the pronunciation features of each language. For example: address, telegraph, socialism.

We conducted a survey among students of our lyceum in order to show the discrepancies in some meanings in the Russian and English languages.

40 students had to write what this or that word means in Russian and what its meaning is in English.

We have chosen several such international words: control, family, general, magazine, original, atom.

These are the results we got from analyzing the answers to the tasks.

The first word was control

All 40 students (100%) know the original meaning of this word ‘control’. 10 students (25%) know that this word has multiple meanings and can take on the following meanings: ‘management’, ‘leadership’, ‘power’.

The second word was family

All 40 students (100%) know that in English family means only ‘family’ or ‘clan’, and ‘surname’ never has a meaning in English.

We took the third word - general

All 40 students (100%) answered that general is the same as the Russian word ‘general’. 30 people (75%) answered that more often this word general appears as an adjective with the meaning ‘main’, ‘general’, ‘ordinary’.

The fourth word we took was magazine

All students (40 people - 100%) answered that the word magazine does not correspond to the Russian ‘shop’, but means ‘magazine’. And two (5%) also translated this word as ‘a warehouse for military supplies’.

The fifth word was - original

All students (40 people - 100%) answered that the noun in Russian and English coincides with its meaning, but 35 students (87.5%) know it as an adjective in the meaning of 'original', 'genuine'.

And the last word was - atom

An international word was proposed that coincides in its literal meaning, but diverges in the possibilities of figurative use.

All 40 people (100%) translated this word as 'atom', but not a single student knows the figurative meaning of this word - 'baby', 'crumb', as is sometimes the case in English. Speaking about little Paul Dombe, Dickens calls him ‘the atom’; this metaphor can be translated into Russian in one word – ‘crumb’.

Based on the above, we can draw the following conclusions:

1. Many international words differ not only in external form, but also in meaning.

About 19% of students do not know the main meaning of international words in English.

2. The questionnaire and subsequent conversation with students made it possible to replenish their vocabulary and deepen students’ knowledge of the origin and meaning of many international words.

Therefore, this research work has practical significance and is of great interest to students.

Conclusion

Having familiarized ourselves with the works of scientists available to us in the field of the history of the English language, dealing with the problems of language contacts and borrowings, we have identified such an interesting fact that borrowings in the English language are striking not only in their quantity, but also in the variety of languages ​​from which they are borrowed.

In the process of historical development, the English language has borrowed a huge amount of vocabulary from other languages. French can be considered the most active donor languages ​​(mechatronics, prince, people, money, parent, army, comfort, coach, etc.); Japanese (hara-kiri, sushi, karaoke, ikebana, samurai, geisha, kimono), at the moment Japanese is one of the leading donor languages; Latin (street, port, wine, mile, etc.); Dutch (dock, reef, yacht, rock, spool, landscape, etc.); Italian (sonata, umbrella, balcony, bank, macaroni, spaghetti, etc.); Spanish (banana, barbecue, bravado, canyon, chili, chocolate, potato, tomato, etc.); German (superman, homesickness, hamburger, delicatessen etc.); Russian (tzar, spetsnaz, limitchiki, glasnost, perestroika, etc.).

The vocabulary of the English language will also be replenished from other languages: happy, low, ill, ugly, weak, Viking (Scand.); haiduk, hussar (Hungarian); polka, mazurka (Polish); algebra, harem (Arabic); psychology, alphabet, sympathy (Greek).

Having carried out, to the best of our ability, a thorough analysis of borrowed words in the English language, the following conclusions can be drawn.

Firstly, foreign language borrowings are one of the types of enrichment of the vocabulary of the English language.

Secondly, the vocabulary of the English language has absorbed a truly huge number of words from a wide variety of languages ​​of the world, and the reason for such a huge number of borrowings and the diversity of the languages ​​from which they are borrowed lies in the specifics of the historical development of England. This specificity lies in the fact that the English people were constantly in direct contact with many foreign-speaking peoples, first as a defeated people, subsequently due to the transformation of England into a colonial power as a colonizing people. In addition, during a certain historical period in England, Latin and French acted as functional languages ​​in various spheres of social activity. Although the English language emerged victorious from the struggle against the languages ​​of the conquerors, although it was forcibly implanted in colonial countries, nevertheless, it could not help but absorb into its vocabulary many words from the languages ​​with which it came into contact. It is these historical circumstances that explain such an abundance of borrowings in the language.

Thirdly, under the influence of borrowing, many original words fell out of use or changed their meaning. For example, the noun bar in French means ‘bar’, ‘bolt’, but in English this word is translated as ‘bar’, ‘restaurant’, which has no meaning in French.

Borrowings are also interesting because they are able to reflect changes in the cultural and historical life of the country.

We live in very unstable times, a time of change. These changes primarily affect the socio-political sphere of life. therefore, it can be assumed that to a greater extent words will be borrowed from this group. We can only hope that these words will have a positive connotation.

And in conclusion, I would like to note that even in our time, the French language retains its leading position among European donor languages.

COURSE WORK

in the discipline "Fundamentals of the theory of language learning"

Lexicology

Borrowings in English

MANAGEMENT..………………………………………………………………………………………...…3

1. DISCLOSURE OF THE CONCEPT OF LANGUAGE BORROWING. ITS DIFFERENT INTERPRETATIONS.................................................... ............................………………………….…5

2. REASONS FOR BORROWING FOREIGN LANGUAGE WORDS. HISTORY OF STUDYING THE REASONS OF BORROWING.................................................... ............................................9

3. LIVING ENGLISH AS A CONTINUALLY DEVELOPING ENGLISH

PHENOMENON ….......................................……………………… .......................…………...15

3.1. Examples of languages ​​and borrowings that influenced modern English.................................................... ........................................................ ..............................16

4. RESULTS OF THE BORROWING PROCESS. THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE BORROWING IN THE FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE......................................................... ........................................................ ……………………….20

CONCLUSION.....……………………………………………………...………………..24

LIST OF REFERENCES AND SOURCES USED………………………………………………………………………………...………...26

INTRODUCTION

Relevance of the topic: The presented work is devoted to the topic “Borrowings in English”. The problem of this study has relevance in the modern world. This is evidenced by the frequent raising and further study of issues of linguistic borrowing, which extend their influence to a wide variety of areas of activity, both of certain generations and the development of nations as a whole. No language is “pure” - all have impurities and borrowings. English is no exception. It contains words from Latin, French, Italian, Spanish, Chinese, Japanese, Hindi and many other languages. And, therefore, the study of the above problem has been and will be of a relevant nature, due to the close connection of language borrowings with the general history of the past and the prospects for the development of languages ​​in the future.

Target: Studying the topic “Borrowings in the English language” from the point of view of the latest domestic and foreign research on similar issues of linguistic borrowing as a process. Determining the role of linguistic borrowing in the formation and development of the English language.

Based on the goal, the following were identified: Tasks :

Study the theoretical aspects and nature of linguistic borrowings involved in the formation and development of the English language;

Determine the criteria and possibilities of linguistic borrowings in speech;

Outline the trends in the development of the topic “Borrowings in the English language”.

Object This study is to analyze and identify the nature of linguistic borrowings in the English language.

Subject research is an analysis of the conditions of linguistic borrowings in English, consideration of individual issues formulated as the objectives of this study,

1. DISCLOSURE OF THE CONCEPT OF LANGUAGE BORROWING. ITS DIFFERENT INTERPRETATIONS.

Borrowing- this is a process as a result of which a certain foreign language element appears and is fixed in the language; also such a foreign language element itself. This is an integral component of the functioning and historical change of language, one of the main sources of vocabulary replenishment; It is also a full-fledged element of the language, which is part of its lexical wealth, serving as a source of new roots, word-forming elements and precise terms.

Borrowing in languages ​​is one of the most important factors in their development. The process of borrowing lies at the very basis of linguistic activity.

Sound and formal uniformity within a language is a consequence of borrowing by some individuals from others; In the same way, the borrowing of elements of the lexicon of one language by another language occurs - through the interaction of their speakers.

The proportion of borrowed elements in languages ​​is large, although it is not possible to accurately calculate their number, both due to the constant increase in the number of foreign language elements penetrating the language, and due to the action of the assimilation process, which makes it difficult to establish the origin of the word.

In each language the following layers can be distinguished: words inherent in all languages ​​of one family; words common to a group, subgroup of related languages; native words of a particular language; borrowed words. Using the English example, it looks like this:

Indo-European words (common to many languages): mother , brother , daughter , wolf , meat , hear , hundred , be , stand ;

German words: bear, finger, say, see, white, winter ;

West German words: age, ask, give, love, south;

Proper English (Anglo-Saxon words): lady, lord, boy, girl ;

Borrowings:

Related languages: knight, low, flat, fellow, sale(from Old Norse), rummer, napper, fitter(from Dutch);

From another language system: Soviet, sputnik, steppe, taiga(from Russian), judo, samurai, sumo(Japanese), xylophone, epoch, echo(Greek).

This is a generally accepted classification of the vocabulary of the English language. But it cannot be called unequivocally true. For example, words taken for Indo-European may well be borrowed from other proto-languages, because trade and other relations between peoples have existed since ancient times.

Words borrowed in the most ancient times and completely assimilated by the receiving language are not perceived as foreign, and establishing their origin is often difficult even for a linguist ( table- from French).

It is often difficult to establish which language from a group or subgroup is the source of a word (word figure could have come directly from Latin figura, and through French figure). Another difficulty is the distinction between the terms “origin of a word” and “source of borrowing.”

Many words are borrowings of the second or more degree (for example, the word valley came to English from Latin via French).

Despite some inaccuracies, this classification demonstrates the scale of the phenomenon: we see that most words in the English language are borrowed - in an earlier or later era, from a close or distant language system.

Borrowing words is a natural and necessary process of language development. Lexical borrowing enriches the language and usually does not harm its originality at all, since it preserves its main vocabulary, and, in addition, the grammatical structure inherent in the language remains unchanged, and the internal laws of language development are not violated. There can be many reasons causing this process: military-political dependence, intensive language contacts associated with resettlement or geographic proximity; the spread of religion and culture or the high level of technical civilization inherent in another linguistic community; long-term, targeted language policy of one region in relation to another. As a rule, in the process of influence of one linguistic community on another, the interaction of several of these factors is observed. But the most important motivating factor leading to the emergence of borrowings is the borrower's awareness of the fact that another language can bring values, achievements or lifestyles that attract recognition. In other words, another linguistic community is perceived as more progressive.

Consideration of borrowed words can be done in different ways. The history of the English language, which studies the structure of the language, its phonetic, grammatical and lexical features in various eras of language development, studies the vocabulary of the English language in each given period of its development. Therefore, in the history of a language, borrowings from other languages ​​are usually considered in relation to a given period of the language’s existence. In other words, all borrowings are considered simultaneously in a given era. In this work, examining the state of the vocabulary of the English language as a whole, we examine borrowings in the languages ​​from which these borrowings came into the English language under study, in all periods of their development. This is the purpose of the course work.

Borrowings in different languages ​​have different effects on the enrichment of vocabulary. In some languages ​​they did not have such an influence that could significantly affect the vocabulary of the language. In other languages, borrowing in different historical eras had such a significant impact on the vocabulary of the language that even function words, such as pronouns and prepositions borrowed from other languages, replaced the original function words. Since borrowing as a process is inherent in each language and integral to the lexical composition of the English language in particular, this topic is always important and relevant, it has enough material for consideration and research.

2. REASONS FOR BORROWING FOREIGN LANGUAGE WORDS. HISTORY OF STUDYING THE REASONS OF BORROWING.

Many linguists have been studying the reasons for borrowing foreign words since the beginning of the 20th century. However, the identification of the reasons for borrowing was carried out without a sufficiently clear differentiation of linguistic and external, non-linguistic reasons. Thus, in the work of L.P. Krysin it is indicated that

E. Richter considers the main reason for borrowing words to be the need to name things and concepts. Other reasons are also listed, different in nature - linguistic, social, mental, aesthetic, etc., the need for new linguistic forms, the need for the division of concepts, for a variety of means and their completeness, for brevity and clarity, for convenience and etc. The process of linguistic borrowing itself was considered by him in inextricable connection with cultural and other contacts of two different linguistic societies, and as a part and result of such contacts.

Following L.P. Krysin, M.A. Breiter identifies the following reasons for borrowing::

1) Lack of a corresponding concept in the cognitive base of the receptor language. He noted cases when borrowings were used to denote concepts that were new to the receptor language and not available in the source language. Since this does not quite correspond to Breiter’s first reason, it is clarified: in the receptor language there is a need to designate an “actively pulsating” phenomenon in life; the exact word is not immediately found in one’s own language, but in another language (in a foreign language) there are two units that, when combined, are suitable for a name (in English). That is, it is not so much borrowing as the formation of a new English word from non-English elements. The author gives various examples that are understandable to native English speakers, but do not have an equivalent in another language (from where the borrowing occurred). Here we can talk about the separate borrowing of two elements and combining them into a complex name in the receptor language. This model of word formation is productive in various languages ​​and corresponds to word formation processes in others. The actualization of this word-formation model exists in languages ​​at the so-called everyday level, words that are not used in scientific works, but are widespread in the everyday life of a particular people. Such words are rarely used in official documents, but such wording of borrowings is widespread in the media, which indicates the particular popularity of such words. The variability of their spelling does not always indicate the first stage of assimilation, since such variability may be a consequence of the illiteracy of the compiler of a document containing such a borrowed word.

2) Lack of a corresponding (more accurate) name (or its “loss” in competition with borrowing) in the receptor language.

M.A. Breiter notes that about 15% of new words are borrowed due to the lack of a corresponding name in the receptor language. It is noted that the line between this and the previous group is blurred, since in some cases it is difficult to say whether this concept is new for the receptor language. The author also includes in this group those borrowings that, for some reason (easier to pronounce, shorter, more transparent in their etymology, more specifically in semantics) replaced (partially or completely) previously mastered or original language units. Sometimes it is not a question of repression, but of a redistribution of semantic roles: in some situations it is appropriate to use only a foreign word, in others - a native English word. The use of borrowings can be regarded as a result of overcoming the wide polysemy of the original word. In this case, we can use L.P. Krysin’s formulation “the need for specialization of the concept.”

The reason for borrowing often determines the function of a foreign word.

In the case of the coexistence of borrowing and the original or previously acquired name, the function of the borrowed one is to designate the reality of another culture or stylistic marking of the text, and English equivalents are used to describe reality.

3) Providing a stylistic (emphatic) effect. The emphatic function can also be determined by homophony, connecting interlingual meanings. The effect of this factor is infrequent and is designed for a high degree of linguistic competence of speakers.

4. Expression of positive or negative connotations that the equivalent unit in the receptor language does not possess. The author points out that among Russian speakers there is a widespread idea that, for example, Japanese technologies are more progressive than English ones, foreign banks are more reliable, foreign goods are of higher quality. This attitude, according to the author, is widely used in advertising, where borrowings are used to actualize positive connotations.

It should be noted that the excessive use of borrowings in advertising and the media causes a negative reaction from a fairly large, and mostly “old”, segment of the population, therefore creating a positive connotation with the help of borrowings is a controversial issue at all times.

Turning to the list of reasons for borrowing proposed by L.P. Krysin, the above statements are confirmed. L.P. Krysin emphasizes the scope of use of foreign language vocabulary and, at the same time, social aspects:

1. The need to name a new thing, a new phenomenon, etc.

2. The need to distinguish between concepts that are similar in content, but still differ.

3. The need for specialization of concepts - in one area or another, for one purpose or another.

4. The tendency that a whole object, not divided into separate components, should be designated “whole” and not by a combination of words.

5. Socio-psychological reasons and factors for borrowing: the perception by the entire group of speakers or part of it of a foreign word as more prestigious, “scientific”, “beautiful-sounding”, as well as the communicative relevance of the designated concept.

Taking into account the above, it can be noted that intralinguistic reasons for borrowing are mainly indicated. Also, it was mentioned about external, extra-linguistic reasons for borrowing foreign vocabulary: intensification of connections with other peoples, states, changes in the mentality of English-speaking people.

Borrowings from many historical periods, in part or in full, meet the reasons listed above.

The range of concepts and phenomena of purely English origin is limited. Therefore, borrowing an already existing nomination along with the borrowed concept and subject is considered simpler and more effective.

In almost every thematic group, the majority of borrowings are lexemes that appeared in the English language as a result of satisfying the need to name a new thing or concept.

Words forming quasi-synonymous series have fairly easily identified semantic differences.

The terminology of computer technology that has developed on the basis of the English language is easily replenished with new terms of foreign language origin. A similar process can be observed in sports terminology, as well as in the vocabulary of uncodified subsystems of the language, such as the argot of drug addicts, prostitutes, hippies, musicians and others, where anglicisms or calques of English words predominate.

The tendency to establish a correspondence between the non-division of an object and single-element, single-lexicality is observed in the case when an empty cell is filled in, which corresponds to a certain meaning, but the denoting - in the form of a separate word - is absent (a descriptive phrase is used instead). As mentioned above, this reason for borrowing is closely related to the first reason and almost always they should be considered together, although the second reason can be called narrow, more specific: the speaker saves speech effort, language involves filling some cell with a nomination.

Among the socio-psychological reasons influencing the borrowing process is an increase in the number of speakers and knowledge of different languages. The large flow of people leaving the country, living for a long time in other countries and returning back is the reason for the frequent switching to other languages, the so-called “code-switching”. In such cases, the speaker not only uses borrowings in speech, he switches from one language to another. The influence of emigration on the borrowing process is not as high as a wide knowledge of various languages, which is essential for the borrowing process.

Many linguists point to the not very frequent, but still prestige of a foreign word in some situations compared to English.

L.P. Krysin calls this phenomenon “increase in rank”: a word that in the source language names an ordinary object, in the borrowing language refers to an object that is in one sense or another more significant, more prestigious, etc. The expressiveness of novelty is one of the persistent reasons for borrowing as more prestigious, significant, and expressive. Borrowings have the advantage over English synonyms that they certify the speaker socially in certain areas more highly, emphasize the level of awareness and claim the superiority of a certain group (youth) using this vocabulary.

A powerful impetus for the development of the process of borrowing foreign language vocabulary is its use in the speech of authoritative individuals during popular programs. Many famous TV programs in England feature non-English speaking people, after which the level of borrowing in English increases, especially among young people. Among the social and public reasons for the entry of borrowings into the English language, L.P. Krysiny included the “communicative relevance of the concept” and the corresponding word. If a concept affects important areas of human activity, then the word denoting this concept naturally becomes common. Over time, the relevance of a word may be lost and, conversely, a word borrowed at the beginning of a century may reach the peak of its use at the end of the century.

So, external reasons for borrowing “join” with internal ones (for example, communicative relevance) through socio-psychological ones, this is especially noticeable in the shift of the “speaker / listener” antinomy in favor of the former in a pronounced tendency to replace the Russian descriptive phrase with one word. The number of English-speaking people who know foreign languages ​​has increased significantly. It was often the case that in a speech situation, a borrowed word becomes more prestigious than an English one, the expression of its novelty is attractive, it can emphasize the high level of information content of the speaker. The use of borrowings in the speech of an authoritative person (or in advertising) can become an impetus for his assimilation into English speech.

3 . LIVING ENGLISH AS A CONSTANTLY DEVELOPING PHENOMENON.

Since English is a living language, this factor suggests that English as a phenomenon: constant and developing. Something new comes, the unnecessary disappears. The problem is that in the course of the long history of its development, the English language has absorbed a significant number of foreign words, which in one way or another entered the dictionary. (See Appendix No. 1) Among these words there are both function words and derivational morphemes. This speaks not only of the expansion and richness of English.

Such a large number of borrowed words in the English language has given rise to some linguists to argue that the English language has lost its originality, that it is a “hybrid language.” Even in the early Middle Ages, the English language accepted a large number of borrowings from Scandinavian languages ​​(including such basic words as “skin” - skin and even “she” - she). The most massive flow of borrowings is medieval, after the Norman Conquest, from Old French; as a result, almost half of the English vocabulary has Romance roots. In modern times, a large number of scientific terms and new borrowings from continental languages ​​entered the language. But these facts do nothing to assuage linguists’ doubts about the originality of the language. Most of the words in English have always been and will remain original. With all this, the English language itself is the largest supplier of borrowings.

3.1. Examples of languages ​​and loanwords that have influenced modern English.

Words from other languages ​​"loanwords".

The trend of borrowing foreign words continues to this day. They come from different languages ​​of the world, often from the sphere of modern technologies (computer, Internet, biotechnology, sports, entertainment, business and changes in society).

Many words borrowed from other languages ​​are words for different types of food. For example, latte (Italian word for coffee with a lot of milk), taqueria (a type of restaurant in Mexican Spanish), and radicchio (from Italian; meaning a type of lettuce).

Words from American English.

The importance of American English is growing every day. This is due to America's dominant position in the economic market and its enormous influence on other nations through cinema, music and other cultural spheres. There are a number of words that are not new in the United States, but have recently become widely used throughout the world. For example, majorly (slang extremely) has become widely used, and thus entered the list of new English words (without the AmE mark) in some dictionaries. The borrowing of American words related mainly to the world of business, youth, pop music, the Internet and computers is a very prominent trend in the British language.

Aliens from French.

In 1066, England was conquered by the Normans, and French became the language of prestige and power. During this period, many words from French passed into English. Especially those related to power (duke, duchess, count, countess), government (parliament, government) or law (accuse, attorney, crime). Other borrowings related to fashion (dress, apparel), art (music, poem) and moral qualities (courtesy, charity).

Words that existed in English to convey the same phenomena as borrowings did not necessarily disappear. They often lived side by side with French ones, but were used in a simpler context. For example, the lower classes of English society left in their vocabulary such words as cow, sheep, swine (all of them were taken from the ancient English period). At the same time, the French words beef, mutton, pork came into speech to designate these animals when talking about food (meat). This is due to the fact that meat was eaten mainly by rich people from high society, who were required to know French.

Borrowings from Latin.

Latin, the language of the church, has always played an important role. In some cases, English, French and Latin words with the same meaning exist side by side in the English language. For example, help (English), aid (French), assistance (Latin) or book (English), volume (French), text (Latin). Many Latin words were borrowed into English in the 16th and 17th centuries. Basically, they were part of the written language and were used in the field of intellectual work (species, specimen, tedium, squalor, antenna). Some of the words came into the language in their original form (see those listed above), but there were also those that adapted to the English spelling (history, maturity, polite, scripture). In the 17th century, English-speaking citizens became concerned that Latin words were pouring into the English language. Playwright Ben Jonson satirized this trend in his play Poetastar (1601). One of her heroes produced words, many of which were supposed to be humorous and exaggerated: barmy froth, chilblained, clumsy, clutched, conscious, damp, defunct, fatuate, furibund, glibbery, incubus, inflate, lubrical, magnificate, oblatrant, obstupefact, prorumpted, puffy, quaking custard, reciprocal, retrograde, snarling gusts, snotteries, spurious, strenuous, turgidous, ventositous.

Despite the fact that the words were invented to ridicule the then-existing reality, many of them have become entrenched in the language and are still used in everyday speech. For example, clumsy, conscious, damp, defunct, puffy, reciprocal, retrograde, spurious and strenuous.

In the 17th century, English was in contact with other significant European languages, and this was reflected in a variety of borrowings, for example from French (colonel machine, cartridge), Spanish (armada, banana, galleon) and Italian (ballot, carnival, madrigal).

Celtic borrowings.

Borrowings from Celtic languages ​​in English are few in number, and in most cases belong to dialect vocabulary or to the vocabulary of the lower strata of the population. Of interest is the counting system of British sheep farmers, which is derived from the numerals of the extinct Cumbrian language. The syntactic calque of the Celtic languages ​​is based on the Continuous tense system, which is absent in other Germanic languages.

Scandinavian borrowings.

From Danish as a result of the Scandinavian conquest (from about 870). This group of borrowings is not very numerous, but it includes very frequent words. Here are some examples: they, them instead of hie, hem (hem is preserved in colloquial expressions like I met "em yesterday); take, cut, get, instead of which the English words would be given in modern language *nim, *snide, *werth; are , fellow, gear, ill, happen, happy, husband, kick, law, leg, low, odd, rove, rug, scale (meaning “scales”), scalp, skill, skin, skip, skull, tight, ugly, wrong, etc. nay, fro, skirt, dike, sky, screech, for which English parallels are preserved nay, from, shirt, ditch, welcome, shriek; suffixes in toponymy: -by, -beck, -thorp(e), -fell , -toft, -thwaite from the Scandinavian words byr “village”, bekkr “stream”, thorp “village”, fjall “mountain”, topt “estate”, thveit “fenced area” and others; examples of names: Rugby, Welbeck, Scunthorpe, Micklefell, Lovestoft, Applethwaite; flock, mug and some others came through the Anglo-Norman language; nag, ombudsman, ski, skive, slalom, slam - words reflecting new realities for the English, came from modern Scandinavian languages ​​in the 19th-20th centuries .

Scandinavian loanwords are difficult to distinguish from English words proper, since Danish and Old English were closely related languages. The characteristic difference is that in Danish words /k/, /g/, /sk/ were preserved, while in English they turned into sibilants: /k/ and /g/ - in certain conditions, /sk/ - always.

European borrowings of the 20th century.

In the first half of the 20th century, a large number of words from the German language penetrated into the British natural science vocabulary, including individual morphemes, for example eigen-. The penetration of German vocabulary continues during World War II for military terms and virtually ceases after the war.

Purist tendencies.

At different times, purists tried to cleanse the English language of foreign words, replacing them with Anglo-Saxon ones. One linguistic nationalist said: “Avoid Latin derivatives; use short, expressive Anglo-Saxon monosyllabic words.” (English: Avoid Latin derivatives; use brief, terse Anglo-Saxon monosyllables). The irony is that the only Anglo-Saxon word in this saying is Anglo-Saxon.

4. RESULTS OF THE BORROWING PROCESS. THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE BORROWING IN THE FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

The phenomenon of borrowing has a great influence on the language and causes serious changes in it. As a result of this process, alien elements appear in languages ​​- words and parts of words - which for the most part do not clog the language (which, however, happens with thoughtless borrowing), but enrich the fund of its lexical and morphological capabilities. Often hybrid words arise - words, part of which is borrowed, and the other part - originally exists in a given language (artless - borrowed root art-, dislike - borrowed suffix -like). Words appear that refer to barbarism and exoticism. Mixed languages ​​(Creole, pidgin English) emerge. Numerous international and pseudo-international words appear, which will be discussed in more detail below. These are the most obvious results of the borrowing process. But there are others, less clearly expressed, but no less significant.

One result is the emergence of a large number of doublets (words of identical origin), having different phonemic structure and meaning, since they were borrowed from different sources or in different historical periods, or are the result of a particular development of the word in the language. In English, the main source of doublets are words of Latin origin, coming directly from Latin or through the French language (canal - channel, major - mayor, liquor - liqueur, fact - feat). Some doublets appeared as a result of borrowing from different dialects of the same language (assay - essay (from different dialects of French)) or from the same language at different periods of time (dish - earlier, disk - later borrowing from Latin). Also, doublet pairs arise when the connection between the meanings of a polysemantic word is lost; Thus the Latin persona became two English words: person and parson. There are also exceptional cases of etymological triplets: cattle – chattel – capital (all words come from the Latin capital).

Secondary borrowing is another result of this process. In this case, in the language, along with a previously borrowed and assimilated word, a new word appears, coinciding in form with the previously borrowed one, but having a different meaning, up to homonymy. For example, along with the previously borrowed word pilot in the meaning of “a specialist who controls an aircraft,” at the end of the twentieth century the word pilot appeared in the meaning of “an athlete who controls a high-speed sports vehicle,” which also came from French. Another newest borrowing is the word pilot, meaning “trial issue of a printed publication.” Also, a new meaning of a word may appear in the receiving language as a result of the functioning of this borrowing in it; for example, the word format was borrowed from German through French to mean “the size of a printed publication, sheet”, and later acquired the meaning of “a form of organization and presentation of data in computer memory.” In such cases, the question arises whether these words are homonyms or meanings of a polysemantic word. To solve it, the traditional principle of the presence of common semantic components is used: if they are present, we can talk about the meanings of a polysemantic word (pilot as a pilot and pilot as an athlete), if absent, we can talk about homonymous relations (pilot as a trial issue of a printed publication in relation to other meanings of the word) .

Borrowings have had a very important influence on English grammar. Thanks to the borrowing of the typical French structure of + Noun to express the relation of belonging (legofthetable), the English language has lost its endings. Also, under the influence of borrowings, 2/3 of the original English words were forced out of the language (Anglo-Saxon equivalents of the words face, money, war and others). Many native words have acquired a reduced stylistic connotation compared to borrowings (compare the English calf, pig, cow and the corresponding words of Scandinavian origin veil, pork, beef).

One of the consequences of the borrowing process is international and pseudo-international words. International words are words that have become widespread in many languages ​​of the world as a result of simultaneous borrowing into several languages. These are mainly words of Greco-Latin origin (Greek: autonomy, system, analysis; Latin: principle, nation, volume, progress). Internationalisms also include words from other national languages ​​(Italian sonata, façade, balcony; French etiquette, omelette, gallant; Arabic algebra, alcohol, coffee; Indian jungle, punch, verandah; Russian steppe, nihilist). National variants of internationalisms differ not only in spelling and pronunciation, but also in meaning, which should be taken into account when translating. Thus, in French and English, the word ambition has a neutral meaning “striving for a goal,” while Russian ambition has a negative connotation; family (English), familia (Spanish), Familie (German) mean “family”, the Russian word surname in this meaning is rarely used and is considered obsolete. Such cases often lead to the appearance of “false friends of the translator,” or pseudo-international words - lexical units of two languages, similar in sound and spelling, but partially or completely diverging in meaning. Pseudo-international words can be divided into groups according to the degree of similarity:

1) words that have the same spelling and pronunciation, but completely different meanings (accurate - precise, not neat; complexion - complexion, not complexion; magazine - magazine, not a store);

2) words that, in addition to spelling and pronunciation, coincide in some meanings, but not always in the most common ones (authority - power, less often - authority; pretend - pretend, less often - pretend; solid - solid, and not just solid) ;

3) words that are close, but not identical in spelling and sound, and accordingly have different meanings (adapt - adapt, adopt - accept; data - data, date - date; later - later, latter - the last of those listed, letter - letter, letter);

4) names of measures that are consonant, but do not coincide in quantity (pound (English from Latin through German) - 453.59 g, Pfund (German) - 500 g, pound (Russian) - 409.5 g, ; centner (English from Latin via German) – 45.36 kg, Zentner (German) – 50 kg, centner (Russian) – 100 kg.)

CONCLUSION.

Borrowing as a process is multifaceted; it has certain causes, types and results. The reasons for borrowing lie both within a particular language system and outside it. The need to borrow a foreign language element that arises within a language is explained by the inaccuracy of the existing name or its absence due to the novelty of the designated object for the culture that uses this language. External reasons for the appearance of borrowings arise as a result of contacts between people speaking different languages. Borrowed words facilitate communication, and also often carry a socio-psychological load in the form of connotations that are absent in the correspondences of the receiving language. Borrowing can occur between different languages, both close and distant in terms of kinship. The effects of this process on the target language are varied; they affect not only the lexical level of the language, but also grammar, which is clearly visible in the example of the English language, the grammatical system of which has radically changed as a result of the loss of cases caused by the influence of the French language.

Borrowing as an element of language also has its own specifics: such elements exist at different levels of the language, but not in equal quantities. The largest number of them is at the level of words, the smallest – at the level of stable phrases.

Borrowings in the English language were reviewed and studied from the point of view of the latest domestic and foreign research. The role of linguistic borrowing in the formation and development of the English language is indicated in view of the fact that the process of borrowing provides the prospect and opportunity for the development of the language itself in the process of “building up” the vocabulary and connecting it in the international arena with other languages. The initially set objectives of this course work were also completed, since, having familiarized ourselves with numerous works of scientists in the field of lexicology, it was found that, despite the high percentage of borrowings, the English language cannot be classified as a language of international origin or as one of the Romance languages. The local element contains a huge number of words, but the grammatical structure remains intact. The criteria and possibilities of linguistic borrowings in speech remain practically unchanged to this day.

Trends in the development of the topic “Borrowings in the English language” are also relevant in view of the constant need to study both the history of the past and build future prospects for the state and development of the English language as a language of international scope and use.

Thus, the modern vocabulary of the English language has changed and been supplemented over many centuries and now has a large number of words in its stock. But, despite this, it did not turn into some kind of “hybrid” and in no way lost its originality. The English language remained the language of the Germanic group with all the characteristic features inherent in it throughout its development, and the changes that it underwent in connection with borrowings only enriched its vocabulary.

LIST OF REFERENCES AND SOURCES USED.

1. Breiter M.A. Borrowings in the English language: history and prospects: A manual for foreign students of Russian studies. - Vladivostok: Dialogue Publishing House, 2003.
2. Vinokur G.O. Notes on English word formation. - Moscow, 1999.
3. Krysin L.P. Foreign words in modern life. English language of the late twentieth century. - Moscow, 1996.
4. Krysin L.P. Foreign words in English. - Moscow, 2006.
5. Rosen E.V. New words and stable phrases in the German language. - Moscow, 1991.

6. Antrushina G.B., Afanasyeva O.V., Morozova N.N. “Lexicology of the English language”, Higher Education, Bustard, 2003.

7. Reutovich, Yu.S. Lexical assimilation of German borrowings in English / Yu.S. Reutovich // Theory of communication. Linguistic meanings. Issue 2. Sat. scientific articles: MSLU. – Moscow, 2002.

8. Cheremisina, T.I. Functional aspect of unassimilated borrowings in modern English. - Moscow, 2001.

9. Kabakchi, V.V. English language of international communication/Cross-culturalEnglish. – St. Petersburg: Perm, 2004.

10. Vinokurova V.N. Patterns of development of the semantic structure of lexical borrowings in modern English, 2005.

11. Brunner I.V. Lexicology of modern English. - Moscow., 1999.

12. Sekirin V.P. Borrowings in English. - Moscow, 2004.

13 Atrashevskaya, O.T. Lexical fields with semantically correlative native and borrowed units. Communication theory. – Moscow 2006.

14. Latyshev, L.K. Translation technology / L.K. Latyshev. – M.: NVI-THESAURUS, 2001. – 280 p.

16. Smirnitsky A.I. Lexicology of the English language. - Moscow, 2000.

15. Fadeev V.I. Russian words in English. – Novosibirsk, 1999.

16. Ozhegov S.I., Shvetsova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. - Moscow, 1995.

17. Muller, V.K./Big English-Russian Dictionary/ V.K. Muller, A.B. Shevnin, M.Yu. Brodsky. – Ekaterinburg, 2005.

18. Wikipedia - free encyclopedia: http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki.

19. For those who need English: http://www.study.ru/index.html.

20. Khomenko, S.A., Tsvetkova, E.E., Basovets, I.M. Fundamentals of the theory and practice of translation from English. – Moscow, 2004.

APPENDIX No. 1 “Composition of borrowings in the English language.”

Ministry of Higher and Professional Education of the Russian Federation

Perm State Technical University

Department of Foreign Languages ​​and Psychology

Borrowings in English

Performed:

Art. gr. PRF98-6

Vityukhovskaya Yana

Checked:

Solovyova O. V.

Perm 2000

Introduction. 2

I Etymological structure of the English vocabulary 3

II The role of borrowings in the development of English vocabulary 6

III Classification of borrowings 9

IV Source of borrowings 12

V The problem of assimilation of borrowed words 17

Conclusion 21

Bibliography 22

Introduction.

The topic of this course work relates to the field of lexicology. As you know, vocabulary is the most dynamic aspect of a language in any period of time. It represents the least degree of abstraction in language, since the word is always subject-oriented; it can be borrowed, formed, formed anew, or from elements existing in the language. In my work, I consider borrowing as one of the main ways of word formation in the English language.

The work is structured in accordance with the goals that the author sets for himself:

1) consider the most important sources and ways of penetration of borrowings into the English language

2) determine their role and place in the vocabulary of the English language

3) consider the features of borrowing words based on etymological analysis

The objectives of the course work also include learning to determine the origins of forms and phenomena reflected in any modern word. To do this, I examined in detail the history of Britain, the history of the language, and also analyzed words (which is the practical part of the work). I also made an attempt to systematize and classify borrowings, based on the research of specialists in the field of linguistics.

The work consists of five chapters and a conclusion. Theoretical provisions were developed on the basis of achievements in the field of borrowing and etymology of the English language. The practical part consists of the etymological analysis of words.

I Etymological structure of the English vocabulary.

Modern language is a product of long historical development, during which the language undergoes diverse changes due to various reasons. Changes affect all sides (levels, tiers, aspects) of the language structure, but act in them differently. The historical development of each level depends on specific causes and conditions that stimulate changes in the lexical composition of the language, in its phonetic (phonological) organization, in its grammatical structure.

Language development is characterized by processes of growth and decay. Thus, in the English language, analytical forms and a complex system of verb formation are developing, but the system of declension and personal endings of the verb is falling apart, words fall out of the vocabulary, and new ones appear through borrowing or new formations.

The history of a language reveals all the processes that occurred in a language at different stages of its existence. The causes (factors) of changes that are inherent in the language itself are called linguistic (or interlinguistic), and factors associated with the history of a people, with the general development of human society, are called extralinguistic . These 2 concepts and 2 sides of the history of language are constantly in contact.

The accumulation of knowledge about the history of the development of various aspects of the language should ultimately lead to such a level of final preparation when, with the help of an etymological dictionary, and to a large extent without it, it is possible to explain the origins of the forms and phenomena reflected in any modern word.

Table 1. Etymological structure of the English dictionary. language.

This table requires some explanation. First, you should pay attention to the fact that the second column not only contains more groups, but also contains a larger number of words. This is explained by the high percentage of borrowed words in the English language (75%), which came as a result of numerous historical events and international connections.

In terms of vocabulary, English should be classified as a language of international origin, or at least as one of the Romance languages ​​(since French and Latin words predominate). But given the relative frequency of the words, it is clear that the Anglo-Saxon heritage is taking its toll. The local element in English contains a huge number of frequently repeated words, such as articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, as well as words denoting objects of everyday life (child, water, come, good, bad, etc.)

Moreover, the grammatical structure, essentially Germanic, remained untouched by foreign influence.

It should also be noted that at different times, purists tried to cleanse the English language of foreign words, replacing them with Anglo-Saxon ones. One linguistic nationalist wrote: “Avoid Latin derivatives; use short, expressive Anglo-Saxon monosyllabic words.” (AvoidLatinderivatives; use brief, terseAnglo-Saxonmonosyllable) The irony is that the only Anglo-Saxon word in this slogan is "Anglo-Saxon".

Now let's return to the first column of the table, which represents the local element, the basis of the English vocabulary. The column consists of three groups and only the third is dated. Words from this group appeared in English in the 5th century or later. That is, after the Germanic tribes migrated to the British Isles. As for the Indo-European and Germanic groups, they are so old that they cannot be dated.

The Indo-European element refers to words common to all or more languages ​​of the Indo-European group. English words of this group denote elementary concepts without which human communication is impossible. They can be combined into the following groups:

1. family relationships: father, mother, brother, son, daughter

2.body parts: foot, nose, lip, heart

3.animals: cow, swine, goose.

4.plants: tree, birch, corn

5.times of day: day, night.

6.celestial bodies: sun, moon, star

7.adjectives: red, new, glad, sad

8.numbers from 1 to 100

9. personal and demonstrative pronouns (except they)

10. a large number of verbs: be, stand, sit, eat, know

The Germanic element represents words common to all or most languages ​​of Germanic origin. Some main groups of Germanic words are similar to groups of the Indo-European element:

1.body parts: head, hand, arm, finger, bone

2.animals: bear, fox, calf

3.plants: oak, fir, grass

4.natural phenomena:rain, frost

5. seasons: winter, spring, summer

6.landscapes: sea, land

7.human habitation and furniture: house, room, banch

8.seaworthy vessels: boat, ship

9.adjectives: green, blue, gray, white, small, thick, hight, old, good

10.verbs: see, hear, tell, say, answer, make, give, drink

It should be noted that the English element itself, in a certain respect, is opposed to the first two groups. Not only is it approximately dated, but these words have another feature: they are definitely English and do not have a common origin with words in other languages, while a common root can be found in Indo-European and Germanic words.

II The role of borrowings in the development of English vocabulary

The role of borrowings (borrowings, loan-words) in different languages ​​is not the same and depends on the specific historical conditions of the development of each language. In English, the percentage of borrowings is much higher than in many other languages, since for historical reasons it turned out to be, in contrast to, for example, Icelandic, very permeable. English, more than any other language, had the opportunity to borrow foreign words in conditions of direct direct contact: first in the Middle Ages from successive foreign invaders in the British Isles, and later in conditions of trade expansion and colonial activity of the British themselves. It is estimated that the number of native words in the English dictionary is only about 30%.

It would be a vulgarization to believe that the role of a word in a language is determined by whether it is borrowed or original. Nevertheless, all the most common prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs of time and place, all auxiliary and modal verbs, almost all strong verbs and almost all pronouns, adjectives with suppletive formation of degrees of comparison, all numerals, with the exception of second, million, billion and, finally , many nouns that denote the most common concepts that are constantly involved in the act of communication are native words in modern English.

The general law on the unevenness of changes in language elements, as applied to the problem of borrowing, is formulated as follows: the most permeable are the most mobile elements of the language included in the vocabulary of the language, less permeable are the settled elements of the fund, and the grammatical structure of the language is almost not subject to foreign influences.