Home Rack Message about the Mayan tribe. Mayan civilization. Short description. In addition to flat foreheads and squints, the Mayan nobleman gave his nose the shape of a beak using a special putty, and his teeth were encrusted with jade

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Message about the Mayan tribe. Mayan civilization. Short description. In addition to flat foreheads and squints, the Mayan nobleman gave his nose the shape of a beak using a special putty, and his teeth were encrusted with jade

Habitat.

During the 1st – beginning of the 2nd millennium. The Maya people, speaking various languages of the Maya-Kiche family, settled over a wide area including the southern states of Mexico (Tabasco, Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan and Quintana Roo), the present-day countries of Belize and Guatemala, and the western regions of El Salvador and Honduras.

These areas, located in the tropical zone, are distinguished by a variety of landscapes. In the mountainous south there is a chain of volcanoes, some of which are active. Once upon a time, powerful coniferous forests grew here on generous volcanic soils. In the north, the volcanoes give way to the limestone Alta Verapaz Mountains, which further north form the Petén limestone plateau, characterized by a hot and humid climate. Here the center of development of the Mayan civilization of the classical era was formed.

The western part of the Petén plateau is drained by the Pasion and Usumacinta rivers, which flow into the Gulf of Mexico, and the eastern part by rivers carrying water to the Caribbean Sea. North of the Petén plateau, humidity decreases with the height of forest cover. In the northern Yucatecan Plains, tropical rainforests give way to shrubby vegetation, and in the Puuc Hills the climate is so arid that in ancient times people settled here along the shores of karst lakes (cenotes) or stored water in underground reservoirs (chultun). On the northern coast of the Yucatan Peninsula, the ancient Mayans mined salt and traded it with the inhabitants of the interior regions.

Early ideas about the ancient Maya.

It was initially believed that the Maya lived in large areas of tropical lowlands in small groups, practicing slash-and-burn agriculture. With the rapid depletion of soils, this forced them to frequently change their settlement sites. The Mayans were peaceful and had a special interest in astronomy, and their cities with tall pyramids and stone buildings also served as priestly ceremonial centers where people gathered to observe unusual celestial phenomena.

According to modern estimates, the ancient Mayan people numbered more than 3 million people. In the distant past, their country was the most densely populated tropical zone. The Mayans knew how to maintain soil fertility for several centuries and transform lands unsuitable for agriculture into plantations where they grew maize, beans, pumpkins, cotton, cocoa and various tropical fruits. Mayan writing was based on a strict phonetic and syntactic system. The decipherment of ancient hieroglyphic inscriptions has refuted previous ideas about the peaceful nature of the Mayans: many of these inscriptions report wars between city-states and captives sacrificed to the gods. The only thing that has not been revised from previous ideas is the exceptional interest of the ancient Mayans in the movement of celestial bodies. Their astronomers very accurately calculated the cycles of movement of the Sun, Moon, Venus and some constellations (in particular, the Milky Way). The Mayan civilization, in its characteristics, reveals commonality with the nearest ancient civilizations of the Mexican Highlands, as well as with the distant Mesopotamian, ancient Greek and ancient Chinese civilizations.

Periodization of Mayan history.

During the Archaic (2000–1500 BC) and Early Formative periods (1500–1000 BC) of the Preclassic era, the lowlands of Guatemala were inhabited by small, semi-wandering tribes of hunters and gatherers who subsisted on wild edible roots and fruits, as well as game and fish. They left behind only rare stone tools and a few settlements that definitely date back to this time. The Middle Formative Period (1000–400 BC) is the first relatively well-documented era of Mayan history. At this time, small agricultural settlements appeared, scattered in the jungle and along the banks of the rivers of the Peten plateau and in the north of Belize (Cuelho, Colha, Kashob). Archaeological evidence suggests that in this era the Mayans did not have pompous architecture, class divisions or centralized power.

However, during the subsequent Late Formative Period of the Preclassic era (400 BC - 250 AD), major changes occurred in Mayan life. At this time, monumental structures were built - stylobotes, pyramids, ball courts, and rapid growth of cities was observed. Impressive architectural complexes are being built in cities such as Calakmul and Zibilchaltun in the north of the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico), El Mirador, Yashactun, Tikal, Nakbe and Tintal in the jungle of Peten (Guatemala), Cerros, Cuello, Lamanay and Nomul (Belize), Chalchuapa (Salvador). There was a rapid growth of settlements that arose during this period, such as Kashob in northern Belize. At the end of the late formative period, barter trade developed between settlements remote from each other. The most prized items are items made from jade and obsidian, sea shells and quetzal bird feathers.

At this time, sharp flint tools and the so-called appeared for the first time. eccentrics are stone products of the most bizarre shape, sometimes in the form of a trident or the profile of a human face. At the same time, the practice of consecrating buildings and arranging hiding places where jade products and other valuables were placed was developed.

During the subsequent Early Classic period (250–600 CE) of the Classical era, Maya society developed into a system of rival city-states, each with its own royal dynasty. These political entities showed commonality both in the system of government and in culture (language, writing, astronomical knowledge, calendar, etc.). The beginning of the Early Classic period approximately coincides with one of the oldest dates recorded on the stele of the city of Tikal - 292 AD, which, in accordance with the so-called. The “long count of the Maya” is expressed in numbers 8.12.14.8.5.

The possessions of individual city-states of the classical era extended on average 2000 square meters. km, and some cities, such as Tikal or Calakmul, controlled significantly larger territories. The political and cultural centers of each state were cities with magnificent buildings, the architecture of which represented local or zonal variations of the general style of Mayan architecture. The buildings were located around a vast rectangular central square. Their facades were usually decorated with masks of the main gods and mythological characters, carved from stone or made using the technique of piece relief. The walls of long narrow rooms inside buildings were often painted with frescoes depicting rituals, holidays, and military scenes. Window lintels, lintels, palace staircases, as well as free-standing steles were covered with hieroglyphic texts, sometimes interspersed with portraits, telling about the deeds of the rulers. On lintel 26 at Yaxchilan, the wife of the ruler, Shield of the Jaguar, is depicted helping her husband put on military regalia.

In the centers of Mayan cities of the classical era, pyramids rose up to 15 m high. These structures often served as tombs for revered people, so kings and priests practiced rituals here with the goal of establishing a magical connection with the spirits of their ancestors.

The burial of Pakal, the ruler of Palenque, discovered in the “Temple of the Inscriptions”, provided a lot of valuable information about the practice of honoring the royal ancestors. The inscription on the lid of the sarcophagus says that Pacal was born (according to our chronology) in 603 and died in 683. The deceased was decorated with a jade necklace, massive earrings (a sign of military valor), bracelets, and a mosaic mask made of more than 200 pieces of jade. Pakal was buried in a stone sarcophagus, on which were carved the names and portraits of his illustrious ancestors, such as his great-grandmother Kan-Ik, who had considerable power. Vessels, apparently containing food and drinks, were usually placed in burials, intended to nourish the deceased on his way to the afterlife.

In Mayan cities, the central part stands out, where the rulers lived with their relatives and retinue. These are the palace complex in Palenque, the acropolis of Tikal, and the Sepulturas zone in Copan. The rulers and their closest relatives were exclusively engaged in state affairs - they organized and led military raids against neighboring city-states, organized magnificent festivities, and took part in rituals. Members of the royal family also became scribes, priests, soothsayers, artists, sculptors and architects. Thus, scribes of the highest rank lived in the House of Bakabs in Copan.

Outside the cities, the population was dispersed in small villages surrounded by gardens and fields. People lived in large families in wooden houses covered with reeds or thatch. One of these classical-era villages survives in Serena (El Salvador), where the Laguna Caldera volcano allegedly erupted in the summer of 590. Hot ash covered nearby houses, a kitchen fireplace and a wall niche with painted plates and pumpkin bottles, plants, trees, fields, including a field with corn sprouts. In many ancient settlements, buildings are grouped around a central courtyard, where joint work was carried out. Land ownership was communal in nature.

In the Late Classic Period (650–950), the population of the lowlands of Guatemala reached 3 million people. Increased demands for agricultural products forced farmers to drain swamps and use terrace farming in hilly areas, such as along the banks of the Rio Bec.

In the late classical period, new cities began to emerge from the established city-states. Thus, the city of Himbal left the control of Tikal, which was announced in the language of hieroglyphs on architectural structures. During the period under review, Mayan epigraphy reached the peak of its development, but the content of the inscriptions on the monuments changed. If earlier messages about the life path of rulers with dates of birth, marriage, accession to the throne, and death prevailed, now the main attention is paid to wars, conquests, and the capture of captives for sacrifices.

By 850 many cities in the south of the lowland zone had been abandoned. Construction stops completely in Palenque, Tikal, and Copan. The reasons for what happened are still unclear. The decline of these cities could be caused by uprisings, enemy invasion, epidemic or environmental crisis. The center of development of the Mayan civilization moves to the north of the Yucatan Peninsula and the western highlands - areas that received several waves of Mexican cultural influences. Here the cities of Uxmal, Sayil, Kabah, Labna and Chichen Itza flourish for a short time. These magnificent cities surpassed the previous ones with tall buildings, multi-room palaces, higher and wider stepped vaults, sophisticated stone carvings and mosaic friezes, and huge ball courts.

Mayan ball game.

The prototype of this game with a rubber ball, which requires great dexterity, arose in Mesoamerica as early as two thousand years BC. The Mayan ball game, like similar games of other peoples of Mesoamerica, contained elements of violence and cruelty - it ended with human sacrifice, for which it was started, and the playing fields were framed with stakes with human skulls. Only men participated in the game, divided into two teams, which included from one to four people. The players' task was to prevent the ball from touching the ground and to bring it to the goal, holding it with all parts of the body, with the exception of the hands and feet. The players wore special protective clothing. The ball was more often hollow; sometimes a human skull was hidden behind the rubber shell.

The ball courts consisted of two parallel stepped stands, between which there was a playing field, like a wide paved alley. Such stadiums were built in every city, and in El Tajin there were eleven of them. Apparently, there was a sports and ceremonial center here, where large-scale competitions were held.

The ball game was somewhat reminiscent of gladiator fights, when prisoners, sometimes representatives of the nobility from other cities, fought for their lives so as not to be sacrificed. The losers, tied together, were rolled down the stairs of the pyramids and fell to their deaths.

The last cities of the Maya.

Most northern cities built in the Postclassic era (950–1500) lasted less than 300 years, with the exception of Chichen Itza, which survived until the 13th century. This city shows architectural similarities with Tula, founded by the Toltecs ca. 900, suggesting that Chichen Itza served as an outpost or was an ally of the warlike Toltecs. The name of the city is derived from the Mayan words “chi” (“mouth”) and “itsa” (“wall”), but its architecture is so-called. Puuc style violates classical Mayan canons. For example, stone roofs of buildings are supported on flat beams rather than on stepped vaults. Some stone carvings depict Mayan and Toltec warriors together in battle scenes. Perhaps the Toltecs captured this city and over time turned it into a prosperous state. During the Postclassic period (1200–1450), Chichen Itza was for a time part of a political alliance with nearby Uxmal and Mayapan known as the League of Mayapan. However, even before the arrival of the Spaniards, the League had collapsed, and Chichen Itza, like the cities of the classical era, was swallowed up by the jungle.

In the Postclassic era, maritime trade developed, thanks to which ports emerged on the coast of Yucatan and nearby islands, for example, Tulum or a settlement on the island of Cozumel. During the Late Postclassic period, the Mayans traded slaves, cotton, and bird feathers with the Aztecs.

Ancient Mayan calendar.

According to Mayan mythology, the world was created and destroyed twice before the third, modern era began, which began in European terms on August 13, 3114 BC. From this date, time was counted in two chronology systems - the so-called. long count and calendar circle. The long count was based on a 360-day annual cycle called tun, divided into 18 months of 20 days each. The Mayans used a base-20 rather than a decimal counting system, and the unit of chronology was 20 years (katun). Twenty katuns (i.e. four centuries) made up a baktun. The Mayans simultaneously used two calendar time systems - a 260-day and a 365-day annual cycle. These systems coincided every 18,980 days, or every 52 (365-day) years, marking an important milestone at the end of one and the beginning of a new time cycle. The ancient Mayans calculated time forward to 4772, when, in their opinion, the end of the current era would come and the Universe would once again be destroyed.

Mayan customs and social organization.

Rite of bloodletting.

The families of the rulers were entrusted with the obligation to perform the rite of bloodletting at every important event in the life of the city-states - be it the consecration of new buildings, the onset of the sowing season, the beginning or end of a military campaign. According to Mayan mythology, human blood nourished and strengthened the gods, who, in turn, gave strength to people. It was believed that the blood of the tongue, earlobes and genitals had the greatest magical power.

During the bloodletting ceremony, thousands of people gathered in the central square of the city, including dancers, musicians, warriors and nobles. At the climax of the ceremonial action, the ruler appeared, often with his wife, and with a plant thorn or an obsidian knife he bled himself, making a cut on the penis. At the same time, the ruler's wife pierced her tongue. After this, they passed a rough agave rope through the wounds to increase the bleeding. Blood dripped onto strips of paper, which were then burned in the fire. Due to blood loss, as well as under the influence of drugs, fasting and other factors, ritual participants saw images of gods and ancestors in puffs of smoke.

Social organization.

Mayan society was built on the model of patriarchy: power and leadership in the family passed from father to son or brother. Classic Maya society was highly stratified. A clear division into social strata was observed in Tikal in the 8th century. At the very top of the social ladder were the ruler and his closest relatives, then came the highest and middle hereditary nobility, who had varying degrees of power, followed by retinues, artisans, architects of various ranks and status, below were rich but humble landowners, then simple farmers - community members, and on the last steps there were orphans and slaves. Although these groups were in contact with each other, they lived in separate city neighborhoods, had special duties and privileges, and cultivated their own customs.

The ancient Mayans did not know the technology of metal smelting. They made tools mainly from stone, but also from wood and shells. With these tools, farmers cut down forests, plowed, sowed, and harvested crops. The Mayans did not even know the potter's wheel. When making ceramic products, they rolled clay into thin flagella and placed them one on top of the other or molded clay plates. Ceramics were fired not in kilns, but on open fires. Both commoners and aristocrats were engaged in pottery. The latter painted vessels with scenes from mythology or palace life.

Writing and visual arts.

The Spanish Franciscan bishop Diego de Landa (1524–1579), who arrived in Yucatan in 1549, worked with a Mayan scribe on a system for transmitting hieroglyphs in the Latin alphabet when translating the catechism. However, ancient Maya writing differed from alphabetic writing because individual characters often represented a syllable rather than a phoneme. As a result of discrepancies between the artificial alphabet of Landa and the Mayan script, the latter was considered indecipherable. It is now known that Mayan scribes freely combined phonetic and semantic signs, especially when such combinations opened up possibilities for wordplay.

The scribes who formed the intellectual elite of Mayan society produced hundreds of manuscripts. They wrote with bird feathers on sheets of paper made from tree bark, which were folded like an accordion under bindings covered with jaguar skin. Catholic missionaries considered these books heretical and set them on fire. Only four Mayan manuscripts survive, known as the Madrid, Paris, Dresden and Grolier codices. The Dresden Codex contains a section containing something like a farmer's calendar, where predictions are given for the coming year and the sacrifices necessary to obtain a good harvest are indicated. The prediction of drought is conveyed both in writing and in a drawing of a deer dying from the heat with its tongue hanging out. In addition, the Dresden Codex presents calculations of the movement of the planet Venus. The Codex Madrid gives advice on how best to fit various activities, such as hunting or carving masks, into the calendar cycle.

Scribes demonstrated their art not only on paper, but also on stone, shells, and ceramic vessels. Inscriptions made using the stuka technique guaranteed greater safety, and therefore the Mayan royal genealogies preferred to be imprinted on stone. Texts on ceramics, also made by the nobility, were more personal in nature. Pottery often included the name of the owner, the purpose of the item (plate, dish with legs, container for liquid), and even the contents, such as cocoa or maize. Ceramics painted in this way were often given as gifts.

Ceramic artists sometimes worked together with masters of stone writing. The colors used for painting were red, blue, green and black. The best preserved Mayan wall paintings are in the city of Bonampak in what is now Mexico. It depicts preparations for battle, the battle itself and warriors with long spears fighting side by side, the sacrifice of captives and a festive ritual dance.

Religious Beliefs.

The Mayan pantheon represented the gods of the earth, rain, wind, lightning and other natural forces and phenomena. Chaks, the four gods of rain, were associated with the four cardinal points. They had to be cajoled so that they would not send down rain and hail. The Mayan religion did not contain Christian concepts of sin, punishment and atonement - it was intended to maintain the balance of the natural elements and ensure the fertility of the earth. Even in the 20th century. In the north of Yucatan, the Cha Chac religious rite is practiced in order to appease the gods and bring rain during drought.

Maya, historical and modern Indian people who created one of the most highly developed civilizations of America and the Ancient World in general. Some cultural traditions of the ancient Maya preserve ca. 2.5 million of their modern descendants, representing more than 30 ethnic groups and linguistic dialects.

Habitat

During the 1st - beginning of the 2nd millennium AD. The Maya people, speaking various languages of the Maya-Kiche family, settled over a vast territory that included the southern states of Mexico (Tabasco, Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan and Quintana Roo), the present-day countries of Belize and Guatemala, and the western regions of El Salvador and Honduras.

Early ideas about the ancient Maya

The only thing that has not been revised from previous ideas is the exceptional interest of the ancient Mayans in the movement of celestial bodies. Their astronomers very accurately calculated the cycles of movement of the Sun, Moon, Venus and some constellations (in particular, the Milky Way). The Mayan civilization, in its characteristics, reveals commonality with the nearest ancient civilizations of the Mexican Highlands, as well as with the distant Mesopotamian, ancient Greek and ancient Chinese civilizations.

Periodization of Mayan history

In the Archaic (2000-1500 BC) and early Formative periods (1500-1000 BC) of the Preclassic era, small semi-wandering tribes of hunters and gatherers lived in the lowlands of Guatemala, feeding on wild edible roots and fruits, as well as game and fish. They left behind only rare stone tools and a few settlements that definitely date back to this time. The Middle Formative Period (1000-400 BC) is the first relatively well-documented era of Mayan history. At this time, small agricultural settlements appeared, scattered in the jungle and along the banks of the rivers of the Peten plateau and in the north of Belize (Cuelho, Colha, Kashob). Archaeological evidence suggests that in this era the Mayans did not have pompous architecture, class divisions or centralized power.

During the subsequent Early Classic period (250-600 AD) of the Classical era, Mayan society developed into a system of rival city-states, each with its own royal dynasty. These political entities showed commonality both in the system of government and in culture (language, writing, astronomical knowledge, calendar, etc.). The beginning of the Early Classic period approximately coincides with one of the oldest dates recorded on the stela of the city of Tikal - 292 AD, which, in accordance with the so-called. The “long count of the Maya” is expressed in numbers 8.12.14.8.5.

In Mayan cities, the central part stands out, where the rulers lived with their relatives and retinue. These are the palace complex in Palenque, the acropolis of Tikal, and the Sepulturas zone in Copan. The rulers and their immediate relatives were exclusively engaged in state affairs - they organized and led military raids against neighboring city-states, organized magnificent festivities, and took part in rituals. Members of the royal family also became scribes, priests, soothsayers, artists, sculptors and architects. Thus, scribes of the highest rank lived in the House of Bakabs in Copan.

In the late classical period (650-950), the population of the lowland regions of Guatemala reached 3 million people. Increased demands for agricultural products forced farmers to drain swamps and use terrace farming in hilly areas, such as along the banks of the Rio Bec.

Last Mayan cities

Most northern cities built in the Postclassic era (950-1500) lasted less than 300 years, with the exception of Chichen Itza, which survived until the 13th century. This city shows architectural similarities with Tula, founded by the Toltecs ca. 900, suggesting that Chichen Itza served as an outpost or was an ally of the warlike Toltecs. The name of the city is derived from the Mayan words “chi” (“mouth”) and “itsa” (“wall”), but its architecture is so-called. Puuc style violates classical Mayan canons. For example, stone roofs of buildings are supported on flat beams rather than on stepped vaults. Some stone carvings depict Mayan and Toltec warriors together in battle scenes. Perhaps the Toltecs captured this city and over time turned it into a prosperous state. During the Postclassic period (1200-1450), Chichen Itza was for a time part of a political alliance with nearby Uxmal and Mayapan, known as the League of Mayapan. However, even before the arrival of the Spaniards, the League had collapsed, and Chichen Itza, like the cities of the classical era, was swallowed up by the jungle.

Ancient Mayan calendar

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Mayan- a Central American civilization known for its writing, art, architecture, mathematical and astronomical systems. It began to take shape in the pre-classical era (2000 BC - 250 AD), most of its cities reached the peak of their development in the classical period (250-900 AD). The Mayans built stone cities, many of which were abandoned long before the arrival of Europeans, others were inhabited even after. The calendar developed by the Mayans was also used by other peoples of Central America. A hieroglyphic writing system was used, partially deciphered. Numerous inscriptions on the monuments have been preserved. They created an effective farming system and had deep knowledge of astronomy. The descendants of the ancient Mayans are not only the modern Mayan peoples, who have preserved the language of their ancestors, but also part of the Spanish-speaking population of the southern states of Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras. Some Mayan cities are included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites: Palenque, Chichen Itza, Uxmal in Mexico, Tikal and Quirigua in Guatemala, Copan in Honduras, Hoya de Ceren in El Salvador - a small Mayan village that was buried under volcanic ash and is now excavated.

Territory
The territory where the Mayan civilization developed is part of the states: Mexico (states of Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan, Quintana Roo), Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras (western part). About 1,000 Mayan sites have been found, but not all of them have been excavated or explored by archaeologists, as well as 3,000 villages.

Story
In ancient times, the Mayans represented various groups that shared a common historical tradition. As a result of research carried out in relation to the Mayan language, it was concluded that approximately around 2500-2000. BC e., in the area of modern Huehuetenango (Guatemala), there was a group of Proto-Mayans, whose members spoke the same language, also called Proto-Maya by researchers. Over time, this language split into different Mayan languages. Subsequently, speakers of these languages emigrated and settled in different areas, where the Mayan zone was later formed and a high culture arose. Population migrations have led both to the separation of various groups and to their rapprochement with representatives of other cultures. The periodization of Mayan culture is similar to the chronology of all of Mesoamerica, although it is more accurate due to the deciphering of time hieroglyphs and their comparison with the modern calendar. The history and culture of the Mayan people are usually divided into three main periods, the boundaries between which are very fluid:
- period of formation (1500 BC - 250 AD);
- Ancient Kingdom (250 - 900 AD);
- New Kingdom (900 AD - XVI century).
The Mayan civilization developed on the Mexican Yucatan Peninsula and mountainous Guatemala. In the Maya region, three major language groups emerged: Yucatecan, Tzeltan and Quiché. At the beginning of 1000 The Quiches were the most powerful group of Mayan tribes. The Mayan tribes began their cultural development around the 2nd millennium BC. During this period, in Yucatan and surrounding areas, two cultures replaced each other - "Ocos" and "Quadros", at that time beautiful ceramic products appeared, the surface of clay vessels was covered with a stamped pattern of stripes, which was created using agave fibers. Mayan history begins from 500 BC. by 300
AD Mayan culture begins its formation. This is especially noticeable on humanoid clay figurines, where the physical characteristics of the population of that era are present. The patterns that decorate the first Mayan buildings are also examples. It was then that large cult centers began to appear in the southern regions of Guatemala. Izapa on the Pacific coast and the mountainous regions of Guatemala are rapidly developing. In the late archaic period, Kaminaljuyu appeared, the oldest center of Mayan culture, not far from the present Ciudad de Guatemala. At this time, the Miraflores culture was emerging in Guatemala, and, apparently, Kaminaljuyu became Izapa's military enemy. To the north, at the same time, the Olmec and Mayan cultures came into contact. By the 1st century. n. e. All traces of the Olmec culture, the decline of which began three centuries earlier, completely disappear. In the early Preclassic period, Maya society was composed of groups of families united by the same language, customs and territory. They banded together to cultivate the soil and fish, hunt and gather to obtain food for survival. Later, with the development of agriculture, irrigation systems were built and the range of crops grown expanded, some of which were already sold. Population growth accelerated, the construction of cities and large ceremonial centers began, around which the people settled. As a result of the division of labor, classes emerged. From the Preclassic period, the Mayans began to build individual structures in which the influence of other cultures can be discerned. Later, Mayan architecture began to express mystical and religious ideas; therefore, temples and palaces, ball fields were erected in the central part of the cities, and residential buildings were located in the surrounding areas. 250 Beginning of the Early Classic period. This year, Teotihuacan and Kaminalhuyu form a trade alliance with Tikal. In 400 AD Kaminalhuyu completely falls under the power of the Teotihuacan Pochteca merchants - the Teotihuacans come to the city and in its place build a miniature copy of their capital, which becomes the southeastern outpost of the empire. During the Esperanza stage, the Maya mountain region was under the protectorate of the Teotihuacan dynasties and, of course, under the influence of Teotihuacan artistic styles. Then, to the north of Kaminalhuyu, the first cyclopean Mayan structures began to be built, which at first served as mausoleums for the Teotihuacan “viceroys” - the pochteca. A distinctive feature of this stage is thin “orange” ceramics. It is covered with geometric patterns, clearly of Teotihuacan origin. Tripod vessels appear. Similar products were also common in Central Mexico. Subsequently, when the hegemony of Teotihuacan in the Mayan lands ends, the “Esperanza” stage passes into an equally noticeable stage in the history of the Maya - “tsacol”. During the Tsacol phase, the influence of the Teotihuacan culture on the Petén and highland Maya region is still strong.
Classic period:
From 325 to 925 AD e. It is divided into the Early Classic (325-625 AD), when outside influence ceased and its own characteristics appeared. The Period of Heyday (625-800 AD), when mathematics, astronomy, ceramics, sculpture and architecture reached their maximum brilliance, and the Period of Crisis (800-925 AD) - the time when culture came to decline and ceremonial centers were abandoned.
The Classical era is the time of the true heyday of the Maya, both in mountainous Guatemala, both in Peten and in the North of Yucatan. The classical Mayan culture emerged, hieroglyphic writing developed, and cyclopean limestone structures were erected. There is a flourishing of sciences - astronomy, mathematics, healing. During the Classic period, the Mayans developed their own elements in architecture, such as, for example, false vaults, built-on terraces, stucco decorations, ridges on the roof ridges, which, when mixed, led to the emergence of what is called the Peten style in architecture. It is characterized by structures on stepped terrace foundations, thick walls, staircases outside the facade, high ridges above the rear wall and plaster decorations in the form of grotesque masks. In Guatemala, powerful dynasties of native Mayan rulers succeed each other - at the beginning of the late period of the classical era, the rise of Tikal occurs. Not far from Copan, in eastern Guatemala, is the “city” of Quirigua. It is no less remarkable than Copan and is quite similar to it in its architectural style. Quirigua's most magnificent monument is undoubtedly the Stela E, reaching an impressive height and covered with exquisite reliefs of baroque excess. Apparently Quirigua was the main city of the region, and Copan was its protectorate. Copan is a unique city. But the Mayans achieved the true greatness of the “city” in the 8th-9th centuries. Tikal defeats Calakmul and begins to rule all of Peten. At the same time, Palenque, Bonampak, Yaxchilan, and Piedras Negros flourish in the Usamancita River basin. In these places, Mayan art reached its peak. In Bonampak, magnificent wall paintings are created that tell the story of the victory of the local ruler over the army of Yaxchilan.

Postclassic period:
In the postclassic period, the high Mayan culture was preserved only in the North of Yucatan, but in synthesis with a completely different civilization - the Toltec. The cities of Petén and mountainous Guatemala fell into disrepair, many were abandoned by their inhabitants, others turned into tiny villages. The north of Yucatan flourished even in the classical era - several large regions formed there: Chenes, Rio Bec, Puuc. The center of the first was the “city” of Chikanna, the second - Calakmul, El Mirador, Saros, in the third Uxmal, Coba, Sayil, and the “necropolis” of the island of Haina flourished. In the classical era, these were the richest cities in Yucatan, as they were able to trade with the Toltecs. But by the end of the classical era, these cities were destroyed by the invasion of the Maya-Chontal people, who were at a lower stage of development than the Yucatecs and Quiches. They were influenced by Toltec culture more than by Mayan culture. Soon after the Chontal invasion, a cult center was founded Chichen Itza. The city is believed to have been founded in the 5th-6th centuries and was one of the largest Mayan cities. By the end of the 10th century, however, for unknown reasons, life here had practically ceased. Structures dating from this period are located mainly in the southern part of modern Chichen Itza. The city was then occupied by the Toltecs, who came to Yucatan from central Mexico. The arrival of the Toltec leader, obviously, was not a peaceful event: the inscriptions from Chichen talk about the invasion of invaders who overthrew the Mayan dynasty. The most famous religious buildings of Chichen are a huge ball court, the Well of Victims - a karst gap and, of course, the famous El Castillo, the Temple of Kukulcan. Period from 1200 to 1540 AD. e. An era of conflict, when intertribal alliances are broken and a series of armed clashes occur that divide the people and further impoverish the culture. Yucatan is entering a period of fragmentation and decline. On its territory the states of Vaymil, Campeche, Champutun, Chiquinchel, Ekab, Mani-Tutuk-Shiu, Chetumal, etc. are formed. These states are continuously at war with each other, and when the Spaniards arrived in the Mayan zone, large ceremonial centers had already been abandoned, and culture was in complete decline.

Art
The art of the ancient Mayans reached its peak during the Classic period (circa 250 - 900 AD). The wall frescoes in Palenque, Copan and Bonampak are considered some of the most beautiful. The beauty of the images of people on the frescoes allows us to compare these cultural monuments with cultural monuments of the ancient world. Therefore, this period of development of the Mayan civilization is considered classical. Unfortunately, many of the cultural monuments have not survived to this day, as they were destroyed either by the Inquisition or by time.

Cloth
The main attire for men was the loincloth, which was a palm-wide strip of fabric that was wrapped several times around the waist, then passed between the legs so that the ends hung in front and behind. The loincloths of eminent persons were decorated “with great care and beauty” with feathers or embroidery. A patti was thrown over the shoulders - a cape made of a rectangular piece of fabric, also decorated in accordance with the social status of its owner. Noble people added to this outfit a long shirt and a second loincloth, similar to a wrap-around skirt. Their clothes were richly decorated and probably looked very colorful, as far as can be judged from surviving images. Rulers and military leaders sometimes wore a jaguar skin instead of a cape or attached it to their belt. Women's clothing consisted of two main items: a long dress, which either began above the chest, leaving the shoulders bare, or was a rectangular piece of material with slits for the arms and head, and an underskirt. The outerwear, like for men, was a cape, but longer. All items of clothing were decorated with multicolor patterns.

Architecture
Mayan art, which found expression in stone sculpture and bas-reliefs, works of small sculpture, wall paintings and ceramics, is characterized by religious and mythological themes, embodied in stylized grotesque images. The main motifs of Mayan art are anthropomorphic deities, snakes and masks; it is characterized by stylistic grace and sophistication of lines. The main building material for the Mayans was stone, primarily limestone. Typical of Mayan architecture were false vaults, upward-facing facades, and ridged roofs. These massive facades and roofs, crowning palaces and temples, created an impression of height and majesty.

Mayan writing and timekeeping
The exceptional intellectual achievements of the pre-Columbian New World were the writing and timekeeping systems created by the Maya people. Mayan hieroglyphs served both ideographic and phonetic writing. They were carved on stone, painted on ceramics, and used to write folding books on local paper called codices. These codices are the most important source for the study of Mayan writing. The Mayans used Tzolk'in or Tonalamatl, counting systems based on the numbers 20 and 13. The Tzolk'in system, common in Central America, is very ancient and was not necessarily invented by the Maya people. The Olmecs and the Zapotec culture of the formative era developed similar and fairly developed time systems even earlier than the Mayans. However, the Mayans advanced much further in improving the numerical system and astronomical observations than any other indigenous people of Central America. The Mayans had a complex and quite accurate calendar system for their time.
Writing
The first Mayan monument with hieroglyphs carved on it, discovered by archaeologists in the territory of the modern Mexican state of Oaxaca, dates back to approximately 700 AD. e. Immediately after the Spanish conquest, attempts were made to decipher the Mayan writing system. The first researchers of Mayan writing were Spanish monks who tried to convert the Mayans to the Christian faith. The most famous of these was Diego de Landa, the third bishop of Yucatan, who in 1566 wrote a work called Reports of Affairs in Yucatan. According to de Landa, Mayan hieroglyphs were akin to Indo-European alphabets. He believed that each hieroglyph represented a specific letter. The greatest success in deciphering Mayan texts was achieved by the Soviet scientist Yuri Knorozov from the Leningrad Institute of Ethnography of the USSR Academy of Sciences, who made his discoveries in the 1950s. Knorozov became convinced that de Landa's list was not an alphabet, but he did not reject it entirely for this reason. The scientist suggested that de Landa's "alphabet" was actually a list of syllables. Each sign in it corresponded to a certain combination of one consonant and one vowel. The signs joined together were the phonetic notation of words.
As a result of the discoveries of the 20th century, it became possible to systematize knowledge about the Mayan writing. The main elements of the writing system were signs, of which about 800 are known. Usually the signs look like a square or an oblong oval; one or more characters can be placed together, forming a so-called hieroglyphic block. Many such blocks are arranged in a specific order in a rectilinear grid, which determined the spatial framework for most known inscriptions.
The ancient Mayan counting system
The Mayan counting system was not based on the usual decimal system, but on the twenty-digit system common in Mesoamerican cultures. The origins lie in the method of counting, which used not only ten fingers, but also ten toes. At the same time, there was a structure in the form of four blocks of five numbers, which corresponded to the five fingers and toes. Also interesting is the fact that the Mayans had a designation for zero, which was schematically represented as an empty shell from an oyster or snail. The notation zero has also been used to denote infinity.

Mayan religion
Among the ruins of Mayan cities, buildings of a religious nature dominate. It is assumed that religion, together with the servants of the temples, played a key role in the life of the Mayans. In the period from 250 to 900 AD. e. At the head of the city-states of the region were rulers who included, if not the highest, then at least a very important religious function. Archaeological excavations suggest that representatives of the upper strata of society also took part in religious rituals. Like other peoples who inhabited Central America at that time, the Mayans believed in the cyclical nature of time and astrology. For example, their calculations of the movement of Venus differed from modern astronomical data by only a few seconds per year. They imagined the Universe divided into three levels - the underworld, earth and sky. Religious rituals and ceremonies were closely related to natural and astronomical cycles.
According to astrology and the Mayan calendar, the “time of the fifth Sun” will end on December 21-25, 2012 (winter solstice). The “Fifth Sun” is known as the “Sun of Movement” because, according to the Indians, during this era there will be a movement of the Earth, from which many will die.
Gods and sacrifices
Like other peoples of Central America, human blood played a special role among the Mayans. Judging by the various household items that have survived to this day - vessels, small plastic and ritual instruments - we can talk about a specific ritual of bloodletting. The main type of ritual bloodletting in the classical period was a ritual in which the tongue was pierced, and this was done by both men and women. After piercing the organs (tongue, lips, palms), a lace or rope was threaded through the holes. According to the Mayans, the blood contained the soul and vital energy. The Mayan religion was polytheistic. At the same time, the gods were mortal creatures similar to people. In this regard, human sacrifice was considered by the ancient Mayans as an act that would, to a certain extent, prolong the life of the gods. Human sacrifice was common among the Mayans. People were sacrificed by hanging, drowning, poisoning, beating, and also by being buried alive. The most cruel type of sacrifice was, like the Aztecs, ripping open the stomach and tearing out the still beating heart from the chest. Both captives from other tribes captured during wars and representatives of their own people, including members of the upper strata of society, were sacrificed. It is well established that representatives of other tribes captured during wars, including members of the highest strata of the enemy, were sacrificed on a huge scale. However, it is still unclear whether the Mayans waged bloody wars to obtain more prisoners of war for the purpose of sacrificing them in the future, as the Aztecs did.
Political and social structure of society
The Mayans were primarily foreign policy oriented. This was due to the fact that individual city-states competed with each other, but at the same time had to control trade routes to obtain the necessary goods. Political structures varied depending on the region, time and people living in the cities. Along with hereditary kings under the leadership of the "ayawa" (ruler), oligarchic and aristocratic forms of government also took place. The Quiche also had noble families who performed various tasks in the state. Also, democratic institutions took place at least in the lower layer of society: the procedure that exists to this day for electing a burgomaster, a “Mayan burgomaster,” every three years, has probably existed for quite a long time. In the social structure of society, any member of Mayan society who reached the age of 25 could challenge the chief of the tribe. In case of victory, the tribe had a new leader. This usually happened in small settlements.

Everyone has heard about the ancient Mayan civilization. These were amazing people who left grandiose pyramids and ancient observatories. This civilization is full of secrets and mystery. But scientists present new interesting facts every day, making modern people surprised by the representatives of this tribe.

Mercy for the Captive through Sacrifice

The Mayan priests often practiced human sacrifice. The action took place at the top of the pyramid. And for a prisoner (or a person from a tribe), death on the altar was considered a great mercy.

Technologies

This civilization did not use metal or wheels in its inventions. But this did not stop them from building majestic pyramids and making weapons from volcanic rock.

Writing

The Mayans had the most advanced writing system. And they recorded the history of their civilization on all suitable surfaces.

Advanced medicine

The Mayan Indians knew how to use medicinal plants for anesthesia during operations. They sewed up the wounds with human hair. They even knew how to make dentures.

Created arenas similar to modern stadiums

Archaeological excavations have proven that representatives of this civilization were among the first to play ball (played with the severed heads of prisoners). And the arenas located in ancient cities resemble modern stadiums in design.

A strange idea of beauty

Representatives of noble families tied planks to their children's foreheads to give them a flat shape. Cross-eyedness and an “eagle nose” were considered beautiful.

The most accurate predictions

No one knows how the priests of the Mayan civilization managed to predict future events thousands of years in advance. Plates with messages for ancestors were found in different parts of the famous pyramids. Even after deciphering, the predictions became clear after the events took place.

Created the basics of mathematics

Archaeologists are confident that the Mayan Indians were the first in the world to use 0 as an independent mathematical unit. Other tribes and peoples came to this much later.

The Mayan civilization preceded the Aztecs and experienced several major ups and downs over the past 2 thousand years. In fact, it is still alive and is reflected in the culture of the people who inhabit the Yucatan Peninsula. We have collected 19 fantastic facts about this ancient and mysterious tribe that will surely surprise you!

Although this civilization was conquered and limited in its development, in many rural areas of Mexico and Guatemala the Mayan language and culture are preserved with enviable tenacity

According to recent estimates, about 7 million Mayans still live on the Yucatan Peninsula

Some linguists believe that the word "shark" comes from the Mayan language.

The Colombian Maya often sought to improve the physical characteristics of their children. Mothers pressed boards against their children's foreheads to flatten the bone.

An object was often hung in front of the child's eyes and it dangled until the baby developed strabismus - another desirable and noble feature

Children were given a name corresponding to the day on which they were born

Mayan medicine is actually quite advanced. They sewed up wounds with human hair, filled teeth and even made dentures.

Some Mayans still practice blood sacrifices. But human sacrifices no longer exist in their culture. Today only chickens are used

The Mayans use painkillers obtained from the natural environment, both in religious rituals (as hallucinogens) and in medicine (as anesthesia)

Like the Aztecs, the Mayans were avid players of the Mesoamerican ball game. Sites for the game have been found in all major cities of civilization, and the game itself was often associated with the beheading of a victim, most likely from the losing team.

In fact, the severed heads are believed to have been used as balls.

Saunas and baths played a huge role in Mayan culture

Prisoners, slaves and others were prepared for sacrifice through painting blue and torture.

They were then led to the top of one of the pyramids, where they were shot with a hail of arrows, and if the heart was still beating, it was cut out of the chest by the priest of the temple. Sometimes the assistant priests removed the skin from the victim, after putting it on, the chief priest performed a ritual dance.

The Mayans had one of the most advanced writing systems and left inscriptions wherever they could, including on the walls of buildings

Like the Aztecs, the Mayans never used iron or steel. Their weapons were made from obsidian or volcanic rocks

In addition to flat foreheads and squints, the Mayan nobleman gave his nose the shape of a beak using a special putty, and his teeth were encrusted with jade

Speaking of teeth, the aristocratic women of the tribe sharpened their teeth

The Mayans were perhaps the first civilization to use the number 0. Subsequently, Indian mathematicians were the first to use it as a mathematical quantity in calculations

No one knows for sure the reasons for the fall of the Mayan Empire. Scientists name several possibilities - from drought and famine to overpopulation and climate change.

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