Sulfur is a chemical element located in the periodic system of Mendeleev at number 16 and is denoted by the symbol S (from Latin sulfur). The elemental nature of sulfur was established in 1777 by the French scientist and chemist Antoine Lavoisier. Sulfur boils at 444 degrees Celsius. When melting, it passes from a solid to a liquid state, gradually changing its color, depending on the gradation of the melting temperature. For example, reaching a mark of 160 degrees Celsius, this chemical element changes its color from yellow to brown, and heating up to a mark of 190 degrees, the color changes to dark brown. Reaching a temperature regime of 190 degrees, sulfur loses its viscosity of the structure, gradually becoming more liquid. The element becomes completely fluid when it is heated to 300 degrees.

In addition to the ability to go from solid to liquid, sulfur has a number of other interesting features. So, it has a negative thermal conductivity and does not conduct electricity at all. It is absolutely insoluble in water, however, it dissolves perfectly in liquids that do not have water molecules in their structure (for example, in ammonia). It interacts well with solvents and carbon disulfide, which are characterized by organic nature. Also, its chemical zest can be added to the description of sulfur. By its nature, sulfur is active and can perfectly enter into a chemical reaction when heated with any chemical element. May interact with substances such as:

• - at room temperature, reacts with it;
• with metals - creates sulfides and is at the same time an oxidizing agent;
• oxygen - heating up to a temperature mark of 280 degrees Celsius, forms associations of oxides;
• fluorine - in tandem with this substance, sulfur shows itself as a reducing agent;
• phosphorus or carbon - in the absence of air supply, sulfur shows itself as an oxidizing agent.

Historical information

The chemical element sulfur in its native state or in the form of sulfur compounds was known to mankind many thousands of years ago. Its unique properties are mentioned not only on the sacred pages of the Bible and Torah, but in Homer's poems and other sources. Due to its properties, sulfur was used in all kinds of ritual and religious ceremonies. Sulfur was one of the important components of the "sacred" incense, which was used both to expel spirits and to summon them. It was used to "stupefy those who came", using sulfur in combination with mercury, ancient shamans believed that in a burning state it was able to repel and expel demons, spirits and other evil spirits.

Sulfur has become an integral part in the creation and use of "Greek fire" used in the creation of incendiary mixtures for military purposes. In China, around the 8th century, sulfur was used as a pyrotechnic, its exact formula was banned, its distribution was punishable by death.

There was an opinion that sulfur (as the beginning of combustibility) and mercury (as a symbol of the beginning of metallicity) are the main components of all metals. Such a hypothesis took place in Arabic alchemy.

In addition, Sera was treated for skin diseases for a long time, considering this method to be the most effective in medicine.

Sulfur application

The scope of sulfur is quite multifaceted and diverse. Sulfur is primarily used in the chemical industry to create sulfuric acid; in agriculture (to create tools that help in the fight against pests and diseases of plants, mainly grapes and cotton). Sulfur has also found its application in the production of rubber, it is used in the manufacture of matches, is part of dyes and luminescent compounds. In medicine, sulfur is used in mud baths; the so-called balneotherapy (from the Latin "to soak in water") - helps in the treatment of arthritis and skin diseases. It has not been scientifically proven, but sulfur is also used to treat asthma, although many scientists believe that it is sulfur vapor that can provoke the appearance of respiratory diseases.

Sulfur in food

Sulfur is rich in foods such as:

• gooseberry,
• grape,
• bakery products,
• garlic,
• asparagus,
• cabbage,
• lean beef,
• chicken eggs,
• milk products,
• cereals, etc.

Lack of sulfur in the body

The lack of sulfur in the human body (with a daily intake of 4-6 mg) manifests itself in the form of diseases such as:

• hair loss or complete baldness,
• kidney disease,
• various allergies,
• dullness and brittle hair,
• joint pain,
• constipation,
• brittle nails,
• tachycardia.

Interesting and informative facts about sulfur

Sulfur is an essential element in the human body, as it takes part in the structure of cells, cartilage, and nerve fibers. Also involved in metabolic processes. Shows itself as an excellent stabilizer of the work and coordination of the nervous system. Sulfur balances blood sugar levels, which is very beneficial for people suffering from diabetes.

Sulfur reduces pain in the joints and cartilage, helps to remove bile. It also has an anti-inflammatory effect on the body, is used for tissue regeneration. Helps to strengthen the muscle tissue of a growing organism.

Sulfur itself is odorless, but when combined with other components, it emits the smell of rotten eggs.

As we can see, sulfur, so imperceptible and ordinary at first glance, is an indispensable component in a full-fledged human life due to its wide range of applications. Without sulfur, our life has lost its benefits, health would not be so strong.

Sulfur is one of the most important trace elements for humans, responsible for the good appearance of the nail plates, strands, and skin. This element is present in the composition of medicinal and cosmetic preparations; a properly composed diet will help to avoid deficiency.

Sulfur is an essential element for the human body

What is sulfur

Sulfur is an essential element of all protein compounds in the human body, it is involved in the processes of metabolism and regeneration, its benefits and effects on health can hardly be overestimated.

What is sulfur for?

• creation of cells, cartilage and bones, collagen synthesis;
• responsible for the appearance of nails and strands, a healthy complexion, prevents the appearance of wrinkles;
• ear wax protects the hearing organs from infections, cleans them from dust and dirt;
• the element is part of amino acids, some hormones, enzymes, is required for good blood clotting;
• maintains oxygen balance, sugar level.

Through the skin, sulfur penetrates into the deeper layers, breaks down into sulfates and sulfites, enters the bloodstream, spreads to all internal organs, but it is also necessary to take it inside. The substance is excreted from the body through the kidneys.

Useful properties of sulfur

Sulfur is used for medicinal and cosmetic purposes. The main task of sulfur is anti-allergic and immunomodulatory action, improving the functioning of the nervous system, cleansing the body of toxic elements and toxins.

The effect of sulfur on the body:

• protects against pathogens;
• maintains the required level of bile, which contributes to better absorption of food;
• protects cells from the negative effects of radiation and other harmful external factors;
• stops the development of articular pathologies;
• prevents the development of anemia, ensures a normal supply of oxygen to the tissues.

Sulfur interacts with vitamins of group B, H, lipoic acid, provides energy to brain cells, promotes better absorption of glucose by muscles.

Sulfur maintains normal levels of bile in the body

Where applicable

Pharmaceutical sulfur is used to treat various diseases, medicines based on this trace element can quickly eliminate the manifestation of articular and dermatological pathologies.

What helps sulfur:

• allergies and dermatological diseases;
• bronchial asthma;
• arthritis, scoliosis, bursitis, osteoarthritis, myositis, sprains;
• convulsions;
• as an anti-inflammatory and analgesic;
• to strengthen the immune system, speedy recovery after prolonged illness;
• to reduce the body's need for insulin in diabetes mellitus.

In cosmetology, products with sulfur are used to prevent early aging, improve the appearance of the skin, give strength and shine to the hair, and strengthen the nail plates.

Sulfur is used in cosmetology

For external medicinal preparations, precipitated (purified, combustible) sulfur is practiced, it is part of the sulfur ointment, which is prescribed for the treatment of scabies, seborrhea, psoriasis. In combination with lanolin, petroleum jelly, stearic acid, the microelement has an antihelminthic, exfoliating and anti-inflammatory effect - such drugs are prescribed to eliminate rosacea, we deprive the scalp of lesions.

Purified sulfur in the form of tablets is used in the treatment of enterobiasis, constipation, as an external agent for the treatment of dermatological pathologies. In the form of a yellow powder, the product is used in folk and traditional medicine, it can be used orally, to prepare medicines.

Homeopathic sulfur has a mild therapeutic effect, it is produced in the form of granules, you need to take the drug for a long time under the supervision of a specialist.

Sulfur is useful not only for people, but also for animals - the feed product is included in the composition of vitamins for animals. This trace element is also used to enrich fertilizers in agriculture, in the production of steel and rubber, explosives, and pyrotechnics.

What foods contain sulfur

The daily requirement for sulfur is 0.5–1.2 g, with a balanced menu, the presence of a sufficient amount of protein foods in the diet, the required amount can be obtained daily from food. Most of it is found in products of animal origin, in small quantities it can be found in plant foods.

Table of foods high in sulfur

Product	Sulfur content (mg)
Rabbit meat, chicken, turkey	180–240
Pike, perch, sardine, pink salmon, flounder	190–210
Soya	240–250
Green peas	180–190
Raw hazelnuts, almonds	170–190
chicken eggs	170–180
Quail eggs	120–130
Condensed milk	70–75
Barley, wheat, oatmeal	70–100
Onion	60–70
Rice, semolina	60–70
Milk	30–35
cabbage, potatoes	30–40
Tomatoes, eggplant	12–15
Raspberry, strawberry, gooseberry	12–18
Melon, citrus fruits	10–12

An increased amount of sulfur up to 3 g per day is required for excessive physical and mental stress, for adolescents during a period of intensive growth, for athletes.

Instructions for the use of sulfur

Before using sulfur-containing drugs, you should always consult with a specialist. Only a doctor can choose the optimal and safe dosage of the drug.

Sulfuric ointment

Sulfuric ointment should be applied 1-3 times a day on dry, cleansed skin, the duration of treatment is 5-10 days.

Sulfur powder for internal use

Purified sulfur in the form of a powder helps with enterobiasis, obesity, problems with hematopoiesis, a precipitated product can also be used, but it often provokes the development of flatulence.

Medical sulfur should be taken with food

Sulfur is best absorbed when combined with iron and fluorine. Barium, lead, selenium, molybdenum reduce the percentage of trace element absorption.

In the pharmacy you can buy vitamin nutritional supplements based on yeast and sulfur - Evisent, AMT, Bioterra, they contain all the necessary elements to improve the condition of hair, nails, to rejuvenate facial skin, and maintain health.

Indications for use:

• manifestations of a lack of vitamins of group B;
• recovery period after surgery and prolonged illness;
• depletion of the body, passion for strict diets;
• endocrine pathologies - diabetes mellitus, thyroid disorders, obesity, hormonal imbalance;
• diseases of the digestive system, deterioration of blood clotting;
• nervous, physical, mental overwork;
• for the prevention of cardiovascular diseases;
• dermatological diseases - acne, acne, furunculosis.

Brewer's yeast with sulfur improves skin, hair and nails

Tablets should be taken in 6-15 pcs. daily in 3 doses for 2-3 months, after which you need to take a break for six months.

Sulfur-based preparations are contraindicated during pregnancy and lactation, they are not used for the treatment of children under three years of age.

At the initial stage of using sulfur-based preparations, rashes may appear, the skin begins to peel off strongly, sometimes a laxative effect is observed - these are not side reactions, such a reaction is provoked by the strong antiseptic and anti-inflammatory properties of the microelement, all pathogenic microorganisms are drawn out through the skin.

Natural alternative to chewing gums, completely composed of resinous larch compounds, has an antimicrobial effect. Chewing sulfur returns the natural color of tooth enamel, prevents the development of caries, periodontal disease, periodontitis, inflammation in the oral cavity, helps to cope with toothache, is indispensable for stomatitis, tonsillitis. Experts recommend chewing sulfur twice a day for 30 minutes.

Larch gum helps to quit smoking, avoid overeating.

Chewing sulfur helps to get rid of diseases of the oral cavity

Sulfur in folk medicine

Sulfur helps to get rid of colic, prevent hernia in children - the powder on the tip of the knife should be added to milk or other food. You must first consult with a surgeon or.

1. Purified sulfur powder is taken 1 g three times a day for dermatological problems. For the treatment of diathesis in children, you can prepare an ointment from an equal amount of sulfur and fatty sour cream, lubricate the affected areas 1-2 times a day after water procedures. The mixture can be used even for newborns after prior consultation with a pediatrician.
2. The recipe for a universal talker to eliminate inflammatory processes on the face is to combine 50 ml of boric acid with ethyl alcohol, add 7 g of medical sulfur, 1 tablet of acetylsalicylic acid. Shake, pour into a dark glass container, store in the refrigerator, wipe the inflamed areas in the morning and evening.

Sour cream and sulfur are well suited for the treatment of skin diseases in children.

What are the dangers of a lack or excess of sulfur

Excess and deficiency of sulfur are rarely observed in the body. People who consume little protein suffer from a lack of microelements, an overabundance may indicate a violation of metabolic processes.

With a lack of sulfur, hypertension, tachycardia develops, the skin becomes dry, begins to peel off, the hair loses its shine, the nails exfoliate, and the liver deteriorates. The lack of an element is evidenced by frequent allergic reactions, increased sugar levels, joint and muscle pain, and constipation.

Signs of an excess of sulfur:

• the skin becomes oily, acne, itching appear;
• photophobia, increased lacrimation, frequent conjunctivitis, sensation of the presence of a foreign body in the eyes;
• increased fatigue, migraine;
• loss of appetite, nausea, disturbances in the digestive system;
• bronchitis with symptoms of asthma;
• decrease in hemoglobin level.

With an excess of sulfur, acne appears and the skin becomes oily.

The accumulation of sulfur does not occur with excessive consumption of foods that are rich in this trace element. Poisoning is possible only with prolonged contact with sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide.

An excess of sulfur can lead to the development of serious mental pathologies, seizures, and in case of severe poisoning, loss of consciousness is possible.

Sulfur is an essential trace element for beauty and good health. You can get it with food, and in case of serious diseases, you can buy sulfur powder, ointments or tablets based on it at the pharmacy. Lack and excess of the element manifest itself in the form of various pathologies.

Sulfur is an element of the periodic system of D. I. Mendeleev, its atomic number is sixteen. It has non-metallic properties. It is denoted by the Latin letter S. The name, presumably, has an Indo-European root - “burn”.

Historical perspective

When sulfur was discovered and its extraction started, it is not clear. It is only known that ancient people knew about it long before our era. The early priests used it in their cult rituals, included it in fumigating mixtures. The mineral sulfur was attributed to a product that was produced by the gods, mainly living in the underworld.

For a long time, as evidenced by historical documents, it was used as a constituent element of combustible mixtures that were used for military purposes. Homer also did not ignore the mineral sulfur. In one of his works, he described "evaporations" that had a detrimental effect on a person during combustion.

Historians suggest that sulfur was a constituent element in the so-called "Greek fire", which inspired fear in enemies.

In the eighth century in China, it began to be used for the preparation of pyrotechnic mixtures, including combustible substances resembling gunpowder.

In the Middle Ages, it was one of the three main elements of the alchemists. They actively used the mineral native sulfur in their research. Often this led to the fact that experiments with her were equated with witchcraft, and this, in turn, led to the persecution of ancient chemists and their followers by the Inquisition. It was from those times, from the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, that the smell of burning sulfur, their gases, began to be associated with acts of evil spirits and devilish manifestations.

Properties

The native mineral sulfur has a molecular lattice that other similar elements do not have. This leads to the fact that it has low hardness, there is no cleavage, it is a rather fragile material. The specific gravity of sulfur is 2.7 grams per cubic centimeter. The mineral has poor electrical and thermal conductivity and a low melting point. Freely ignites when exposed to an open flame, including from a match, the color of the flame is blue. It ignites well at a temperature of about 248 degrees Celsius. When burning, it emits sulfur dioxide, which has a pungent suffocating odor.

Descriptions of the sulfur mineral are varied. It has shades of light yellow, straw, honey, greenish. In sulfur, which has organic substances in its structure, there is a brown, gray or black color. In the photo, the sulfur mineral in a solid, pure, crystalline form always attracts the eye and is easily recognizable.

Volcanic sulfur is bright yellow, greenish, orange. In nature, you can find it in the form of various masses, dense, earthy, powdery. There are also crystalline overgrown sulfur crystals in nature, but quite rarely.

Sulfur in nature

Natural sulfur in its pure state is rare. But in the earth's crust, its reserves are very significant. These are mainly ores, where sulfur layers are present in large quantities.

Until now, science has not decided on the cause of the occurrence of sulfur deposits. Some versions are mutually exclusive. Taking into account the fact that sulfur exhibits high chemical activity, it is assumed that during the formation of the surface of the earth's crust, it was repeatedly bound and released. How these reactions proceeded has not been established for certain.

According to one version, it is assumed that sulfur is a consequence of the leaching of sulfates, which have become the waste products of individual bacteria. The latter use the mineral compounds as food.

Researchers are considering various versions about the processes of sulfur replacement in the earth's crust, which lead to its release and accumulation. But it is not yet possible to unequivocally understand the nature of the occurrence.

Physical and chemical properties of sulfur

The first scientific research was carried out only in the XVIII century. A thorough study of the properties of the sulfur mineral was carried out by the French scientist Antoine Lavoisier. So, he established that it crystallizes from melts, initially taking on needle-like forms. However, this form is not stable. With a decrease in temperature, sulfur recrystallizes, forming volumetric translucent formations of a lemon-yellow or golden hue.

Deposits, sulfur extraction

The main source of extraction of the mineral sulfur are deposits. According to the calculations of geologists, it follows that its world reserves are about 1.4 billion tons.

Ancient people, as well as the miners of the Middle Ages, mined sulfur by digging a large clay container to the depth. Another was placed on it, in which there was a hole in the bottom. The upper container was filled with rock, which contained sulfur. This structure was heated. Sulfur began to melt and flow into the lower vessel.

Currently, mining takes place by open pit mining, as well as using smelting methods from underground.

Large deposits of sulfur on the territory of Eurasia are found in Turkmenistan, in the Volga region, and other places. Significant deposits in Russia have been discovered on the left banks of the Volga River, which stretch from Samara to Kazan.

When developing the sulfur mineral, special attention is paid to safety. This is due to the fact that the ore is always accompanied by the accumulation of hydrogen sulfide, which is very harmful to breathing. The mineral itself tends to ignite and form explosive compounds.

The most common mining method is open pit. At the same time, the upper part of the rocks is removed by mining equipment. Explosive work is carried out crushing the ore part. Then the fractions are sent to the enterprise for the enrichment process, and then to the smelting plants to obtain pure sulfur.

If the mineral lies deep and its volumes are significant, the Frasch method is used for extraction.

At the end of 1890, engineer Frasch proposed to melt sulfur underground, and after turning it into a liquid state, pump it out. This process is comparable to oil production. Given the rather low idea of ​​the engineer, it was successfully tested and the industrial extraction of this mineral began in this way.

In the second half of the 20th century, the method for mining through the use of high-frequency currents began to be actively used. Their impact also leads to the melting of sulfur. The subsequent injection of compressed hot air makes it possible to accelerate its rise in a liquid state to the surface.

Sulfur is found in large quantities in natural gases. The Claus method is suitable for its extraction. Special sulfur pits are used in which degassing is carried out. The result is a solid modified product with a high sulfur content.

Application

About half of all sulfur produced is used to produce sulfuric acid. Also, this mineral is needed for the manufacture of rubber, drugs, as fungicides in agriculture. The mineral has also been used as a structural element in the popular sulfur asphalt and the substitute for Portland cement - sulfur concrete. It is actively used in the manufacture of various pyrotechnic compositions, in the production of matches.

Biological role

Sulfur is an important biogenic element. It is part of a significant number of amino acids. An integral element in the formation of protein structures. In bacterial photosynthesis, the mineral takes part in the redox reactions of the body and is a source of energy. In the human body, there are about two grams of sulfur per kilogram of weight.

Sulfur in its pure form is not a toxic substance, unlike volatile gases, which include anhydride, hydrogen sulfide, and so on.

Fire properties

Sulfur is a flammable mineral. Its finely ground fractions are capable of spontaneous combustion in the presence of moisture, in the presence of contacts with oxidizing agents, and also when creating mixtures with coal, fats, oils. Extinguish sulfur with sprayed water and air-mechanical foam.

Sulfur is located in the VIa group of the Periodic system of chemical elements of D.I. Mendeleev.
The outer energy level of sulfur contains 6 electrons, which have 3s 2 3p 4 . In compounds with metals and hydrogen, sulfur exhibits a negative oxidation state of the elements -2, in compounds with oxygen and other active non-metals - positive +2, +4, +6. Sulfur is a typical non-metal, depending on the type of transformation, it can be an oxidizing agent and a reducing agent.

Finding sulfur in nature

Sulfur occurs in the free (native) state and bound form.

The most important natural sulfur compounds:

FeS 2 - iron pyrite or pyrite,

ZnS - zinc blende or sphalerite (wurtzite),

PbS - lead gloss or galena,

HgS - cinnabar,

Sb 2 S 3 - antimonite.

In addition, sulfur is present in oil, natural coal, natural gases, in natural waters (in the form of a sulfate ion and causes the “permanent” hardness of fresh water). A vital element for higher organisms, an integral part of many proteins, is concentrated in the hair.

Allotropic modifications of sulfur

Allotropy- this is the ability of the same element to exist in different molecular forms (molecules contain a different number of atoms of the same element, for example, O 2 and O 3, S 2 and S 8, P 2 and P 4, etc.).

Sulfur is distinguished by its ability to form stable chains and cycles of atoms. The most stable are S 8 , which form rhombic and monoclinic sulfur. This is crystalline sulfur - a brittle yellow substance.

Open chains have plastic sulfur, a brown substance, which is obtained by sharp cooling of the sulfur melt (plastic sulfur becomes brittle after a few hours, turns yellow and gradually turns into rhombic).

1) rhombic - S 8

t°pl. = 113°C; r \u003d 2.07 g / cm 3

The most stable version.

2) monoclinic - dark yellow needles

t°pl. = 119°C; r \u003d 1.96 g / cm 3

Stable at temperatures over 96°C; under normal conditions, it turns into a rhombic one.

3) plastic - brown rubbery (amorphous) mass

Unstable, when hardened, turns into a rhombic

Sulfur recovery

1. The industrial method is the smelting of ore with the help of steam.
2. Incomplete oxidation of hydrogen sulfide (with a lack of oxygen):

2H 2 S + O 2 → 2S + 2H 2 O

1. Wackenroder reaction:

2H 2 S + SO 2 → 3S + 2H 2 O

Chemical properties of sulfur

Oxidizing properties of sulfur
(S 0 + 2ē→ S -2 )

1) Sulfur reacts with alkaline without heating:

S + O 2 – t° → S +4 O 2

2S + 3O 2 - t °; pt → 2S +6 O 3

4) (except for iodine):

S + Cl2 → S +2 Cl 2

S+3F2 → SF6

With complex substances:

5) with acids - oxidizing agents:

S + 2H 2 SO 4 (conc) → 3S +4 O 2 + 2H 2 O

S + 6HNO 3 (conc) → H 2 S +6 O 4 + 6NO 2 + 2H 2 O

Disproportionation reactions:

6) 3S 0 + 6KOH → K 2 S +4 O 3 + 2K 2 S -2 + 3H 2 O

7) sulfur dissolves in a concentrated solution of sodium sulfite:

S 0 + Na 2 S +4 O 3 → Na 2 S 2 O 3 sodium thiosulfate

Sulfur is known in nature in several polymorphic crystalline modifications, in colloidal secretions, in liquid and gaseous states. Under natural conditions, a stable modification is rhombic sulfur (α-sulfur). At atmospheric pressure at a temperature above 95.6 ° α-sulfur passes into monoclinic β-sulfur, upon cooling it becomes rhombic again. γ-sulfur, which also crystallizes in the monoclinic syngony, is unstable at atmospheric pressure and transforms into α-sulfur. The structure of γ-sulfur has not been studied; it is conditionally assigned to this structural group.

The article considers several polymorphic modifications of sulfur: α-sulfur, β-sulfur, γ-sulfur

α modification

The English name for the mineral α-sulfur is α-Sulphur

origin of name

The name α-sulfur was introduced by Dana (1892).

Synonyms:
Rhombic sulfur. Usually just called gray. Dayton-sulfur (Suzuki, 1915) - pseudomorphosis of α-sulfur after β-sulfur.

Formula

Chemical composition

Often, native sulfur is practically pure. Sulfur of volcanic origin often contains small amounts of As, Se, Te and traces of Ti. Sulfur from many deposits is contaminated with bitumen, clay, various sulfates and carbonates. It contains inclusions of gases and a liquid containing a mother liquor with NaCl, CaCl, Na2SO4, etc. It sometimes contains up to 5.18% Se (selenium sulfur)

Varieties
1. Volcanite- (selenium sulfur) orange-red, red-brown color.

Crystallographic characteristic

Syngony. Rhombic.

Class. Dipyramidal. Some authors believed that sulfur crystallizes into a rhombo-tetrahedral class, since sometimes it has the form of sphenoids, but this form, according to Royer, is explained by the influence of an asymmetric medium (active hydrocarbons) on crystal growth.

Crystal structure of sulfur

The structure of sulfur is molecular: 8 atoms in the lattice are included in one molecule. The sulfur molecule forms eight-dimensional rings in which the atoms alternate at two levels (along the axis of the ring). 4 S atoms of one level form a square rotated by 45° relative to another square. The planes of the squares are parallel to the c-axis. The centers of the rings are located in the rhombic cell according to the "diamond" law: at the vertices and centers of the faces of the face-centered cell and at the centers of four of the eight octants into which the unit cell is divided. In the structure of sulfur, the Hume-Rothery principle is maintained, requiring coordination 2 (= 8 - 6) for the elements of the Mendeleev group V1b. In the structure of tellurium - selenium, as well as in monoclinic sulfur, this is achieved by a spiral arrangement of atoms, in the structure of rhombic sulfur (as well as synthetic β-selenium and β-tellurium) - by their ring arrangement. The S - S distance in the ring is 2.10 A, which exactly coincides with the S - S distance in the S 2 radical of pyrite (and covelline) and is slightly larger than the S - S distance between S atoms from different rings (3.3 A).

Form of being in nature

Crystal Shape

The shape of the crystals is different - dipyramidal, less often thickly tabular along with (001), disphenoidal, etc. On the faces (111), figures of natural etching are observed, which are absent on the faces (113).

Doubles

Twins at (101), (011), (110) or (111) are rare; twins at (211) are also noted.

Aggregates. Solid masses, spherical and kidney-shaped secretions, stalactites and stalagmites, powdery deposits and crystals.

Physical properties

Optical

• The color is sulfur-yellow, straw-and honey-yellow, yellow-brown, reddish, greenish, gray from impurities; sometimes from bitumen impurities the color is brown or almost black.
• The line is colorless.
• Glitter diamond
• The tide is resinous to greasy.
• Transparency. Transparent to translucent.

Mechanical

• Hardness 1-2. Fragile.
• Density 2.05-2.08.
• Cleavage by (001), (110), (111) imperfect. Separateness according to (111).
• The fracture is conchoidal to uneven.

Chemical properties

Soluble in carbon disulfide, turpentine, kerosene.

Other properties

The electrical conductivity at ordinary temperature is almost zero. With friction sulfur electrified negatively. In ultraviolet rays, a plate 2 mm thick is opaque. At atmospheric pressure, the melting temperature 112.8°; boiling point + 444.5 °. Heat of fusion at 115° 300 cal/g-atom. Heat of vaporization at 316° 11600 cal/g-atom. At atmospheric pressure at 95.6°, α-sulfur transforms into β-sulfur with an increase in volume.

artificial receiving

Obtained by sublimation or crystallization from solution.

Diagnostic features

Easily recognizable by its yellow color, brittleness, luster and flammability.

Associated minerals. Gypsum, anhydrite, opal, jarosite, asphalt, petroleum, ozokerite, hydrocarbon gas, hydrogen sulfide, celestine, halite, calcite, aragonite, barite, pyrite

Origin and location in nature

Native sulfur is found only in the uppermost part of the earth's crust. Formed in a variety of processes.

Animal and plant organisms play an important role in the formation of sulfur deposits, on the one hand, as accumulators of S, and on the other, as contributing to the breakdown of H 2 S and other sulfur compounds. The formation of sulfur in waters, silts, soils, swamps and in oils is associated with the activity of bacteria; in the latter, it is partly contained in the form of colloidal particles. Sulfur can be released from waters containing H 2 S under the influence of atmospheric oxygen. In coastal areas, sulfur precipitates in places when fresh water is mixed with salt water (from H 2 S sea water, under the action of oxygen dissolved in fresh water). From some natural waters, sulfur is released in the form of white turbidity (the Molochnaya river in the Kuibyshev region, etc.). From the waters of sulfur sources and from swamp waters containing H 2 S and S, sulfur precipitates in the northern regions of Russia in the winter during the process of freezing. One way or another, the main source of sulfur formation in many deposits is H 2 S, whatever its origin.

Significant accumulations of sulfur are observed in volcanic areas, in the zone of oxidation of some deposits and among sedimentary strata; deposits of the last group serve as the main sources of native sulfur mined for practical purposes. In volcanic areas, sulfur is released both during volcanic eruptions and from fumaroles, solfataras, hot springs and gas jets. Sometimes a molten mass of sulfur pours out of the crater of a volcano in the form of a stream (in Japan), and at first β- or γ-sulfur is formed, which later turns into α-sulfur with a characteristic granular structure. During volcanic eruptions, sulfur mainly arises from the action of released H 2 S on sulfur dioxide or from the oxidation of hydrogen sulfide with atmospheric oxygen; it can also sublimate with water vapor. Vapors S can be captured by gases of fumaroles, jets of carbon dioxide. The blue flame observed for the first time during the stage of volcanic eruptions represents clouds of burning sulfur (Vulcano, on the Aeolian Islands, Italy). The hydrogen sulfide stage of fumaroles and solfataras, accompanied by the formation of native sulfur, follows after the stage of isolation of fluorine and chloride compounds and precedes the stage of carbon dioxide emissions. Sulfur is released from solfataras in the form of loose tuff-like products, which are easily transported by wind and precipitation, forming secondary deposits (Cove Creek, Utah, USA).
Sulfur. Crystals in plaster

Mineral change

In the earth's crust native sulfur easily oxidized with the formation of sulfuric acid and various sulfates; under the influence of bacteria can also produce hydrogen sulfide.

Place of Birth

Sulfur deposits of volcanic origin are usually small; they are found in Kamchatka (fumaroles), on Mount Alagez in Armenia, in Italy (solfataras of Slit Pozzuoli), in Iceland, Mexico, Japan, the USA, Java, the Aeolian Islands, etc.
The release of sulfur in hot springs is accompanied by the deposition of opal, CaCO 3 , sulfates, etc. In places, sulfur replaces limestone near hot springs, sometimes it is released in the form of the finest turbidity. Hot springs depositing sulfur are observed in volcanic regions and in areas of young tectonic faults, for example, in Russia - in the Caucasus, Central Asia, the Far East, the Kuril Islands; in the USA - in Yellowstone National Park, California; in Italy, Spain, Japan, etc.
Often native sulfur is formed in the process of supergene changes during the decomposition of sulfide minerals (pyrite, marcasite, melnikovite, galena, antimonite, etc.). Quite large accumulations have been found in the oxidation zone of pyrite deposits, for example, in the Stalinskoye deposit in the Sverdlovsk region. and in the Blyavinsky deposit of the Orenburg region; in the latter, sulfur has the appearance of a dense but brittle mass of layered texture, of various colors. In the Maykain deposit in the Pavlodar region (Kazakhstan), large accumulations of native sulfur were observed between the zone of jarosites and the zone of pyrite ores.
In small quantities, native sulfur is found in the oxidation zone of very many deposits. Sulfur is known to form in connection with coal fires during spontaneous combustion of pyrite or marcasite (powdered sulfur in a number of Ural deposits), during fires in oil shale deposits (for example, in California).

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In black sea silt, sulfur is formed when it turns gray in air due to the change in the monosulfuric iron contained in it.

The largest industrial sulfur deposits are found among sedimentary rocks, mainly of Tertiary or Permian age. Their formation is associated with the reduction of sulfur sulfates, mainly gypsum, less often - anhydrite. The question of the origin of sulfur in sedimentary formations is controversial. Gypsum, under the influence of organic compounds, bacteria, free hydrogen, etc., is first reduced, possibly to CaS or Ca(HS) 2 , which, under the action of carbon dioxide and water, transform into calcite with the release of hydrogen sulfide; the latter, when reacting with oxygen, gives sulfur. Accumulations of sulfur in sedimentary strata sometimes have a reservoir character. Often they are confined to salt domes. In these deposits, sulfur is accompanied by asphalt, oil, ozocerite, gaseous hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide, celestine, halite, calcite, aragonite, barite, pyrite and other minerals. Pseudomorphoses of sulfur on fibrous gypsum (selenite) are known. In Russia, there are deposits of this type in the region of the Middle Volga (Syukeyevskoye Tatarstan, Alekeeevskoye, Vodinskoye, Samara region, etc.), in Turkmenistan (Gaurdak, Karakum), in the Ural-Embensky district of Kazakhstan, where a number of deposits are confined to salt domes, in Dagestan (Avar and Makhachkala groups) and in other areas.
Outside of Russia, large deposits of sulfur confined to sedimentary strata are found in Italy (Sicily, Romagna), the USA (Louisiana and Texas), Spain (near Cadiz), and other countries.

Practical application of sulfur

It is used in a number of industries: in sulfuric acid, paper and cellulose, rubber, colorful, glass, cement, match, leather, etc. Sulfur is of great importance in agriculture as an insectofungicide for pest control on plantations. Grapes, tea, tobacco, cotton , beets, etc. In the form of sulfur dioxide, it is used in refrigeration, is used for bleaching fabrics, for mordant in dyeing, and as a disinfectant.

Physical research methods

Differential thermal analysis

Main lines on radiographs:

ancient methods. Melts easily under a blowpipe. Burns with a bluish flame releasing SO 2 . In a closed tube it gives a yellow crystalline sublimation or reddish-brown droplets, light yellow upon cooling.

Crystal optical properties in thin preparations (sections)

Biaxial (+). Density of optical axes (010); Ng - c, Nm = b, Np = a. Refractive index according to Schrauf.