Max Weber on Science. The Philosophical Significance of Max Weber's Ideas Weber believed that

(1864-1920) - German sociologist, discovered a huge influence on modern sociology - both in terms of methodological and in terms of the accumulation of sociological knowledge. Among his main works are: "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism" (1904-1906), "On the Category of Understanding Sociology" (1913), "History of the Economy" (1923), "City" (1923).

Unlike Auguste Comte and Emile Durkheim, Max Weber believed that the laws of society are fundamentally different from the laws of nature. And therefore it is necessary to develop two types of scientific knowledge - the science of nature (natural science) and the science of culture (humanitarian knowledge). Sociology, in his opinion

lies on the border between these two spheres and must borrow from the natural disciplines a causal explanation of reality and the observance of exact facts, and in the humanities - a method of understanding and relating to values. Understanding - the use of the inner world of individuals, understanding their thoughts and experiences. The sociologist seems to mentally put himself in the place of other people and tries to understand their thoughts and feelings. The scientist considered personality to be the basis of sociological analysis. He was convinced that such complex concepts as: the state, religion, capitalism can only be comprehended on the basis of an analysis of the behavior of individuals. But how to single out the main thing, the common thing in the individual experiences of people? Such a criterion, according to Weber, is "reference to values." Values ​​can be theoretical - truth, political - justice; moral - good; aesthetic

beauty and the like. But, if they are important for all the subjects under study, then they are above subjective, that is, they have an absolute value within the studied era.

The main tool of knowledge for Max Weber is "ideal types". These are such constructions, schemes of social reality that exist in the imagination of scientists. "Ideal" in this case means "pure", "abstract", that is, one that does not exist in real life.

That is, the ideal type should be understood not in moral and ethical terms, but in theoretical and methodological terms. By "ideal" the sociologist does not mean the type to which society should aspire, but the one that contains the most essential, typical features of social reality and can serve as a standard for comparison with social reality. Let's say, if we want to describe the ideal type of a modern Ukrainian passenger in urban transport, then, after analyzing the surrounding reality, we find that this is not at all a polite person, who always pays the fare on time and gives way to the elders, as much as we all would like. No, the ideal type in this case should include other characteristics that are inherent in modern Ukrainian urban transport passengers - this is also a person who sometimes tries to travel without a ticket, often being impolite.

Max Weber operated on such ideal types as: "capitalism", "bureaucracy", "religion", "market economy", etc.

Ideal types should be studied by sociology in the form in which they become significant for individuals, in which they are guided by them in their actions. The social actions of individuals are actions that relate (into account) with the actions of other persons and are oriented towards them (they will not be considered social actions in the sense proposed by Weber, such actions as, for example, a solitary prayer or panic actions of a crowd).

Max Weber distinguishes four types of social action: whole rational, value-rational, affective and traditional.

A whole rational action presupposes and takes into account the behavior of objects in the external world and other people (the criterion of rationality is success). “The whole is rational,” writes Weber, “one acts who orients his action in terms of ends, means, and side effects, and at the same time rationally weighs both the ratio of costs and goals, and goals by side effects.”

A value-rational action is conditioned by a conscious belief in ethical, aesthetic, religious values, according to which this action takes place, regardless of whether this action will bring success or not. “Purely value-rational,” we read in the writings of M. Weber, “one acts who, without considering the possible consequences, acts in accordance with his convictions and does what he thinks his duty requires of him, his understanding of dignity , beauty, its religious precepts, reverence or the importance of what... "deeds".

An example of value-rational action can, for example, be considered the statement of the leader of the German Reformation of the 16th century. Martin Luther, who, in response to the demand of papal Rome to repent and renounce his views, replied: “I cannot and do not want to renounce, because it is dangerous and impossible to go against my conscience. .

8. Affective action - action under the influence of affects and feelings. In the case of an affective action, just as in the case of a value-rational one, the goal of the action is the action itself, and not something else (result, success, etc.); side effects in both the first and second cases are not taken into account.

4. Traditional action is action under the influence of habit, tradition.

The real behavior of an individual, according to Weber, is determined, as a rule, by two or more types of action; there are whole rational, and value-rational, and affective, and traditional moments in it. In different types of societies, certain types of action can dominate: in traditional societies, traditional and affective types of social action predominate, in industrial societies - the whole and value-rational.

What does the whole of rational action mean for society and its growth structure? This means that the way of managing the economy and management is being rationalized. Moreover, this process concerns not only the economy, but also politics, science, culture - all spheres of public life. The way of thinking of people, their way of feeling and way of life in general is also rationalized. This is accompanied by an increase in the role of science, which, according to Weber, is the pure embodiment of the principle of rationality. The penetration of science into all spheres of life is evidence of the universal rationalization of modern society.

Compared to Karl Marx, Max Weber paid much less attention to class conflict and the impact of economics on social life. In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (p904-p906) he explored the relationship between social organization and religious values. Faith prompted the Protestants to selfless work, frugality, personal responsibility for their life path. These qualities contributed to the development of modern capitalism. Capitalism, according to the scientist, was formed and spread in the process of development of science, modern technology, bureaucracy and rationalization of society.

Publication information courtesy of publishing house Peter

Weber Max (1864-1920) Weber Max

1. Introduction
2. Biographical information
3. Main contribution
4. Conclusions

Brief biographical information

received a doctorate and began teaching at the University of Berlin;
became professor of economics at Heidelberg University;
in 1897 he suffered a severe nervous breakdown and for several years was unable to seriously engage in any work;
in 1904, during a trip to the USA, he gradually began to return to normal life;
in 1904-1905 published his most famous work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism);
most of his subsequent works were published over the next fifteen years, as well as posthumously;
died June 14, 1920 while working on his most significant bookeconomy andSociety(“Economy and Society”).

Main works

The Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism (1904-1905)
economy and society (1921)
General Economic History (1927)

Summary

Max Weber was the greatest social theorist; the ideas of the scientist were most directly related to the problems of business and management. In the course of researching world history, M. Weber created a general theory of the rationalization of society. Time was not too harsh for her: today's society is even more rational than in the years of its creation. The theoretical ideas of M. Weber are of particular importance for understanding, among other things, modern formal organizations, the capitalist market, the characteristics of professions and the economy as a whole. They remain relevant today, and the neo-Weberian theories that emerged from them are applicable to the problems of modern society to an even greater extent.

1. Introduction

M. Weber is considered the most prominent German theorist after Karl Marx who dealt with the problems of the development of society. In fact, M. Weber had to fight Marxism and distance himself from it. Like Karl Marx, he knew a lot about capitalism. However, for M. Weber, the problem of capitalism was part of the broader problem of modern rational society. Therefore, while K. Marx focused on alienation within the economic system, M. Weber considered alienation as a broader process taking place in many other social institutions. K. Marx condemned capitalist exploitation, and M. Weber analyzed the forms of strengthening oppression in a rational society. K. Marx was an optimist who believed that the problems of alienation and exploitation could be solved by destroying the capitalist economy, while M. Weber looked at the world pessimistically, believing that the future would only bring increased rationalization, especially if capitalism was destroyed. M. Weber was not a revolutionary, but a thorough and thoughtful researcher of modern society.

2. Biographical information

Max Weber was born into a middle-class family in which parents had very different outlooks on life. His father, who valued the good things in life, was a classic example of a bureaucrat who, in the end, managed to occupy a fairly high position. At the same time, his mother was a sincerely religious person and led an ascetic life. Later, the wife of M. Weber Marianne (Weber, 1975) noted that since childhood, Max's parents presented him with a difficult choice, which he wrestled with for many years and which had a profound impact on his personal life and scientific activity (Mitzman, 1969).
M. Weber received his doctorate from the University of Berlin in 1892 in the same field of knowledge (jurisprudence) with which his father was associated, and soon began teaching at this educational institution. However, by that time his interest had already been directed to three other disciplines - economics, history and sociology - to the study of which he devoted the rest of his life. His early work in these areas secured him a professorship in economics at the University of Heidelberg in 1896.
Shortly after his appointment to Heidelberg, M. Weber had a severe quarrel with his father, who died shortly after this conflict. M. Weber himself for some time suffered from a severe nervous breakdown, from the consequences of which he was never able to fully recover. However, in 1904-1905. he was already healthy enough to be able to publish one of his most famous works, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (Weber, 1904-1905; Lehmann and Roth, 1993). The main theme of this book, as its title implies, reflected the influence exerted on M. Weber by his mother's religiosity (professing Calvinism, which was the leading trend of Protestantism in the era of the formation of capitalism) and his father's love for earthly goods. She also demonstrated the impact of his mother's ideology on his father's philosophy, which was then analyzed by M. Weber in a series of works on sociology and religion (Weber, 1916, 1916-1917, 1921), mainly devoted to the analysis of the influence of the main world religions on the economic behavior of a person.
In the last fifteen years of his life, M. Weber published most of the most important works. Death prevented him from completing the most significant scientific workeconomy and society(Weber 1921), which, although incomplete, was published posthumously, as wasGeneral Economic History(“General Economic History”) (Weber, 1927).
During his lifetime, M. Weber had a significant influence on such scientists as Georg Simmel, Robert Michels and Georg Lucas. However, the influence of his theories remains strong and perhaps even growing even today, thanks to the emergence of many neo-Weberian scientific concepts (Collins, 1985).

3. Main contribution

In the field of business and management, M. Weber is best known for his studies of bureaucracy. However, their results provided only a small part of his more general theory of the rationalization of Western society, many elements of which go beyond the bureaucracy paradigm and are of considerable value to business and management scholars.
In the broadest sense, the question that M. Weber touches on in his works is why Western society has evolved to a special form of rationalization and why the rest of the world has not been able to create a similar rational system? The hallmark of Western rationality is the presence of bureaucracy, but this conclusion reflects only one, albeit a very important aspect (along with capitalism) of the large-scale process of rationalization of society.
The concept of rationalization in Weber's writings is notoriously vague, but the best definition of at least one of its key types - formal rationalization - implies a process in which actors' choice of means to achieve an end becomes increasingly limited, if not completely rule-determined. , regulations and laws of universal application. Bureaucracy, as the most important area of ​​application of these rules, laws and regulations, is one of the main results of this process of rationalization, but along with it there are others, for example, the capitalist market, the system of rational legal authority, factories and assembly lines. What they have in common is the presence of formal rational structures that force all the individuals that make up them to act in a rational manner, striving to achieve goals through the choice of the most direct and effective methods. In addition, M. Weber observed an increase in the number of sectors of society that fall under the power of formal rationalization. Ultimately, he foresaw the emergence of a society in which people would be imprisoned in an "iron cage of rationality" made of an almost inextricable web of formally rational structures.

These structures, as well as the process of formal rationalization in general, can be seen as being defined in many dimensions (Eisen, 1978). First, formally rational structures emphasize the importance of being able to measure themselves or otherwise quantify them. This emphasis on quantitative assessments reduces the importance of qualitative assessments. Second, importance is attached to efficiency, or finding the best available means to an end. Third, it emphasizes the importance of being predictable, or providing assurance that an object will perform in the same way in different places and at different points in time. Fourthly, considerable attention is paid to the problem of control and, ultimately, the replacement of technologies that require the participation of people with completely unmanned ones. Finally, fifthly, which is quite characteristic of Weber's vague definition of the process of rationalization, formally rational systems tend to have irrational results or, in other words, to achieve irrational rationality.
Rationality has many irrational features, but the most important of these is dehumanization. From the point of view of M. Weber, modern formally rational systems tend to become structures in which it is impossible to manifest any humanistic principles, which leads to the emergence of a bureaucrat, a factory worker, an assembly line worker, and also a participant in the capitalist market. According to M. Weber, there is a basic contradiction between these formally rational structures, devoid of values, and individuals with their concepts of “individuality” (that is, subjects who determine these values ​​and are under their influence) (Brubaker, 1984: 63).
A modern researcher of business and management problems faces many questions arising from the works of M. Weber. At the most general level, for the modern business world, Weber's theory of strengthening formal rationalization still remains relevant. The business world, like the whole of society as a whole, must apparently become even more rational than it was in the days of M. Weber. Thus, the process of rationalization remains relevant, and we need to be prepared to spread its influence to the business world and to wider areas of society.
In addition to considering the general theory, there are more specific areas of work by M. Weber, the most important of which for us is connected with the process of bureaucratization and the creation of bureaucratic structures. The process of bureaucratization, as a subset of the more general process of rationalization, continues to evolve, and bureaucratic structures remain viable and even proliferate both in the West and elsewhere in the world. At the same time, Weber's "ideal type" of bureaucracy retains its value as a heuristic tool for analyzing organizational structures. The challenge is to understand how well these structures correspond to the elements of the ideal type of bureaucracy. The concept of an ideal bureaucracy remains a useful methodological tool even in our era of radically updated debureaucratized forms. The ideal type can help determine how far these new bureaucratic forms have departed from the type that was first described by M. Weber.

While bureaucracy continues to be important, we might wonder if it is still a possible paradigm for the rationalization process? After all, it can be argued, for example, that fast food restaurants are today a better paradigm for the rationalization process than bureaucracy (Ritzer, 1996).
Bureaucracy is an organizational form characteristic of one of the three Weberian types of power. If rational-legal power is based on the legality of the rules put into effect, then traditional power is based on the sanctity of ancient traditions. Finally, charismatic power is based on the followers' belief that their leader has unique qualities. The definitions of these types of power can also be used in the analysis of the activities of the leaders of both commercial enterprises and other organizations. Since all three types of power are of an ideal nature, any leader can receive the powers due to them based on the legitimization of any combination of these types.
As communist regimes emerged in different countries of the world, M. Weber's ideas about the capitalist market became more active. The capitalist market was the main site of development and rationalization process, and formally rational structure, defined by all the key elements listed above. In addition, it was essential for the dissemination of the principles of formal rationality in many other areas of society.
M. Weber foresaw the fierce struggle taking place in the modern world between formal rationalism and the second type of rationality, the so-called substantive rationalism. While formal rationalism involves the choice of means to achieve goals with the help of established rules, with substantive rationalism such a choice is made on the basis of consideration of broader human values. An example of substantive rationalism is the Protestant ethic, while the capitalist system, which, as we have seen, turned out to be the “unforeseen consequence” of this ethic, is an example of formal rationalism. The contradiction between the two types of rationalism is reflected in the fact that capitalism has become a system hostile not only to Protestantism, but to any other religion. In other words, capitalism and, more generally, all formally rational systems reflect the growing "disillusionment of the world."
In the modern world, one area of ​​this conflict is the struggle between formally rational systems, such as bureaucracies, and independent rational professions, such as medicine or law. Classical professions are threatened both by formally rational bureaucracies, such as those associated with the state or private enterprise, and by increased formal rationalization within these professions themselves. As a result, the professions as we know them line up in strict "battle formations", and to a large extent begin to lose their influence, prestige and distinctive characteristics. In other words, they are subject to a process of deprofessionalization. This trend is most pronounced in the most influential of all professions, among American physicians (Ritzer and Walczak, 1988).
We have considered two types of rationalism studied by M. Weber (formal and substantive), but two others should also be mentioned: practical (everyday rationalism, through which people perceive the realities of the world around them and strive to cope with them in the best possible way) and theoretical (the desire for cognitive control reality through abstract concepts). It should be noted that the United States has achieved outstanding economic success largely due to the creation and improvement of formally rational systems, for example, assembly lines, systems for controlling labor movements and time costs, new principles of organization - in particular, a system of independent divisions in a corporation.General Motors(see SLOAN, A.) and many others. It must also be acknowledged that the US's recent difficulties are also largely related to the use of formally rational systems. At the same time, Japan's achievements are associated both with the use of American formally rational systems (as well as the development of its own, for example, a just-in-time supply system) and supplementing them with substantive rationalism (the importance of the success of collective efforts), theoretical rationalism (a strong reliance on scientific and technical research and engineering achievements) and practical rationalism (for example, the creation of quality circles). In other words, Japan created a "hyper-rational" system, which gave it a huge advantage over American industry, which continues to rely heavily on a single form of rationalism (Rirzer and LeMoyne, 1991).

4. Conclusions

The main scientific contribution of M. Weber was the creation of his theory of rationalization and the definition of four types of rationalism (formal, substantive, theoretical and practical) and substantiation of the thesis that formal rationalism was a typical product of Western civilization and eventually occupied a dominant position in it. Rationalization theory has proven useful in analyzing traditional concepts such as bureaucracy, professions, and the capitalist market, as well as newer phenomena such as the emergence of fast food restaurants, deprofessionalization, and the impressive growth of the Japanese economy against the backdrop of a slowdown in the American economy. Thus, the ideas of M. Weber continue to retain their importance for understanding many modern trends in the development of business and the economy as a whole. Theorists continue to study and develop his ideas, and researchers are trying to apply them to the study of various social problems.

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Hosted at http://www.allbest.ru/

MAXWEBER:BIOGRAPHY,MAINIDEAS

sociologist weber social

EmandehMaximilianVeber(Max Weber German. Max Weber; (April 21, 1864 - June 14, 1920) - German sociologist, historian and economist. Elder brother of Alfred Weber.

In 1892-1894 he was a privatdozent and then an extraordinary professor in Berlin, in 1894-1896 he was a professor of national economy at Freiburg, from 1896 at Heidelberg, from 1919 at the University of Munich. One of the founders of the "German Sociological Society" (1909). Since 1918 professor of national economy in Vienna. In 1919, he was an adviser to the German delegation at the Versailles negotiations.

Weber made a significant contribution to such areas of social knowledge as general sociology, the methodology of social cognition, political sociology, the sociology of law, the sociology of religion, economic sociology, and the theory of capitalism. Weber called his concept "understanding sociology". Sociology analyzes social action and tries to explain its cause. Understanding means knowing a social action through its subjectively implied meaning, i.e., the meaning that its subject himself puts into this action. Therefore, sociology reflects the entire diversity of ideas and worldviews that regulate human activity, that is, the entire diversity of human culture.

Unlike his contemporaries, Weber did not seek to build sociology on the model of the natural sciences, referring it to the humanities or, in his terms, to the cultural sciences, which, both in methodology and in subject matter, constitute an autonomous field of knowledge. The main categories of understanding sociology are behavior, action, and social action. Behavior is the most general category of activity, which becomes an action if the actor associates a subjective meaning with it. We can talk about social action when the action is correlated with the actions of other people and focuses on them. Combinations of social actions form "semantic connections" on the basis of which social relations and institutions are formed. The result of Weber's understanding is a hypothesis of high probability, which then must be confirmed by objective scientific methods.

Weber identifies four types of social action:

1. goal-rational - when objects or people are interpreted as a means to achieve their own rational goals;

2. value-rational - is determined by a conscious belief in the value of a certain action, regardless of its success;

3. affective - determined by emotions;

4. traditional - determined by tradition or habit

According to Weber, a social relationship is a system of social actions, social relationships include such concepts as struggle, love, friendship, competition, exchange, etc. The social relationship, perceived by the individual as mandatory, acquires the status of a legitimate social order. In accordance with the types of social actions, four types of legal (legitimate) order are distinguished: traditional, affective, value-rational and legal.

The method of Weber's sociology is determined, in addition to the concept of understanding, by the doctrine of the ideal type, as well as by the postulate of freedom from value judgments. According to Weber, the ideal type fixes the “cultural meaning” of a particular phenomenon, and the ideal type becomes a heuristic hypothesis capable of ordering the diversity of historical material without being tied to some predetermined scheme.

Regarding the principle of freedom from value judgments, Weber distinguishes two problems: the problem of freedom from value judgments in the strict sense and the problem of the relationship between knowledge and value. In the first case, one should strictly distinguish between the established facts and their assessment from the worldview positions of the researcher. In the second, we are talking about the theoretical problem of analyzing the connection of any cognition with the values ​​of the cognizer, i.e., the problem of the interdependence of science and cultural context.

Weber puts forward the concept of "cognitive interest", which determines the choice and method of studying an empirical object in each specific case, and the concept of "value idea", which is determined by a specific way of seeing the world in a given cultural context. In the "sciences of culture" this problem is of particular importance, because in this case, values ​​act as a necessary condition for the possibility of the existence of such sciences: we, existing in a certain culture, cannot study the world without evaluating it and without endowing it with meaning. In this case, therefore, we are not talking about the subjective predilections of this or that scientist, but first of all about the “zeitgeist” of a particular culture: it is he who plays a key role in the formation of “value ideas”.

These theoretical postulates allow Weber to interpret the sociology of economics in a "culturological" way. Weber distinguishes two ideal-typical organizations of economic behavior: traditional and goal-oriented. The first has existed since antiquity, the second develops in modern times. The overcoming of traditionalism is connected with the development of a modern rational capitalist economy, which presupposes the existence of certain types of social relations and certain forms of social order.

Analyzing these forms, Weber comes to two conclusions: the ideal type of capitalism is described by him as the triumph of rationality in all spheres of economic life, and such a development cannot be explained solely by economic reasons. In the latter case, Weber argues with Marxism. In his work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Weber tries to explain the genesis of modern capitalism by linking this problem with the sociology of religion, in particular Protestantism. He sees a connection between the ethical code of the Protestant denominations and the spirit of the capitalist economy based on the ideal of the rationalist entrepreneur. In Protestantism, in contrast to Catholicism, the emphasis is not on the study of dogma, but on moral practice, expressed in the worldly service of a person, in the fulfillment of his worldly duty. This is what Weber called "worldly asceticism." The parallels between the Protestant emphasis on secular service and the ideal of capitalist rationality allowed Weber to link the Reformation and the emergence of capitalism: Protestantism stimulated the emergence of forms of behavior specific to capitalism in everyday life and economic life. The minimization of dogma and ritual, the rationalization of life in Protestantism according to Weber became part of the process of "disenchantment of the world", begun by the Hebrew prophets and ancient Greek scientists and culminating in the modern capitalist world. This process is associated with the liberation of man from magical superstitions, the autonomy of the individual, faith in scientific progress and rational knowledge.

In the sociology of power, Weber also follows his own method. In accordance with it, three types of legitimation of power (domination) are distinguished:

1) rational, based on faith in the legality of the existing order and the legitimate right of those in power to give orders;

2) traditional, based on the belief in the sanctity of traditions and the right to rule those who received power in accordance with this tradition;

3) charismatic, based on belief in supernatural holiness, heroism or some other dignity of the ruler and his power.

In this context, the Weberian theory of rational bureaucracy associated with the first type of power is formulated.

In his analysis of democracy, Weber formulates the existence of two types of this type of government: “plebescite leader democracy” and various forms of “leaderless democracy”, the purpose of which is to minimize direct forms of domination of man over man through the development of rational forms of representation, collegiality and separation of powers.

Hosted on Allbest.ru

Sociological theories of M. Weber

Brief biography and characteristics of the scientific works of M. Weber, an antipositivist sociologist. Fundamentals of the non-classical type of scientific sociology. The concept of social action as the core of M. Weber's creativity. Basic principles of rationalization of public life.

abstract, added 12/09/2009

M. Weber: the concept of social action and its types

General description of the main methodological principles of Max Weber's sociology, their significance for the professional training of a sociologist. The concept and essence of social action as a subject of sociology. Classification of social actions according to M. Weber.

term paper, added 10/03/2010

Sociology of Max Weber

Methodology of sociological knowledge of Max Weber. Essence of the theory of "social action". Bureaucracy as a pure type of legal domination. The focus of the work of M. Weber, his concept. The place of creativity of a sociologist in the development of managerial thought.

term paper, added 06/17/2014

The outstanding role of M. Weber in the development of sociology at the end of the last and the beginning of this century. The influence of his teachings on social theories, research and discipline. The idea of ​​"understanding" sociology. The concept of social action. rationalization of public life.

abstract, added 07/18/2014

The theory of social action by M. Weber and its methodological significance for the subsequent development of sociology

Analysis of the main sociological views of M. Weber. The specific nature of the sociological vision of social realities and their purposeful rationality. Features of goal-oriented, value-rational, affective and traditional social action.

test, added 03/25/2011

"Understanding" sociology of M. Weber

Max Weber as a German sociologist, a brief outline of his life and professional activities. The essence and content of "understanding" sociology, its distinctive features. Ideological and theoretical prerequisites for the formation of the Weberian interpretive paradigm.

test, added 02/19/2011

Sociology of M. Weber

Max Weber is one of the founders of the sociological style of thinking. His socio-political views and theoretical positions. Methodological and epistemological principles of sociology, the concept of social action. Sociology of power and religion.

abstract, added 07.10.2009

Classical western sociology of the 19th century

The theme of social solidarity is the main theme of Durkheim's sociology. Durkheim's place in the history of sociology. Weber's sociological concept. The subject and methods of "understanding sociology". Weber and modern society. Marxist sociology and its fate.

abstract, added 02/03/2008

Structure and functions of sociology

Sociology as a scientific direction of knowledge, the subject and methods of its study, objects and subjects, the main functions. The social structure of society and its elements, types and distinctive features. The essence and main provisions of M. Weber's understanding sociology.

test, added 03/08/2010

Sociology M. Weber. Concept of social action

Basic principles of the methodology of sociological science of one of the most influential theorists M. Weber. Social action as a subject of sociology, the study of personality behavior. Weber's theory of rationalization in sociological interpretations of politics and religion.

test, added 10/30/2009

The viber program in Russian allows you to send messages and make free calls wherever you are, provided you are connected to the Internet.

Until recently, a call from abroad cost a lot of money. Let yourself download viber for free in Russian and you won't need to worry about tariffs and account balance.

Download Viber to your computer
Download Viber for android

If your interlocutor also has viber installed, you can chat as much as you want. It is worth noting the quality of communication in the program. It is much higher than in existing analogues.

Advantages of the viber program in Russian

If you install the program on your mobile device or PC, you will be able to appreciate all the benefits of viber:

• simplicity and conciseness of the program;
• nice design in lilac tones;
• interesting emoticons and stickers;
• the ability to send instant messages;
• the ability to send photos, both taken from the program and available in the library;
• the ability to send short videos shot through the program;
• adding any contacts to your list;
• search for new contacts by phone number;
• the possibility of group messaging;
• sending doodles to the interlocutor;
• the ability to indicate your location;
• sending animated messages;
• high-quality communication during a conversation;
• the ability to block a contact and unblock it.

If you download the Viber program for free, the application will be installed on a device running on any operating system. When starting viber for the first time, the user needs to enter their phone number. You will receive a login confirmation code, and then you can start mastering the application. After installing Viber, the Russian version is available without any financial loss.

In the application settings, the user can choose the options for calls and notifications that are convenient for him. As an avatar in the application, the user can upload any photo or picture available on his device. If you want to download Viber for free, then you can do it on our website.

List of contacts in Viber

When you first enter the application, all contacts from the phone book are imported into viber contacts. You can add new contacts by entering the user's existing phone number. If your friend or acquaintance does not use the application yet, you can send him an invitation to join the lovers of this program.

If for some reason you do not want to communicate with a certain contact, you can block it by restricting access to your account. You can also unblock a contact with one click and continue chatting with him.

Making calls and sending messages via Viber

The application opens your phone book of contacts. Near each user who has Viber installed in Russian, there is an application icon in the form of a purple handset. By clicking on a contact, the program will offer you one of two options:

• free call;
• free message.

Sending messages

By selecting "Free message", a dialog box will open in front of the user. At the very bottom of the window is a line for input. There you can also choose emoticons and stickers. In addition to a huge collection of funny stickers installed by default, the user can choose new collections that are installed in the application absolutely free. Regardless of whether your interlocutor has these stickers installed, they will be displayed in the dialog box if you send them to him. Stickers and emoticons will diversify your communication and make it bright. Some stickers can be used instead of writing text messages as they are labeled.

After sending a message, under it the user can see the time and date of sending. If you miss a message, you can easily tell when it was sent.

At the top of the dialog box, you will see the name of your interlocutor as it is signed in your phone book. If there is no user in it, the contact will be displayed as a phone number. Under the username, you will be able to see their activity in the application: "online" or last login time.

By clicking on the "gear" to the right of the contact name, a new window will open in which the user can:

• add a background to the conversation;
• view multimedia files sent between these users;
• add new members to the chat.

By selecting the last item, the application will prompt the user to select a contact from the phone book.

You can add an infinite number of interlocutors to the chat. This is very convenient if you want to congratulate all your friends on a holiday or announce an important event.

Calls via Viber

By selecting "Free call", viber will immediately make a call. During a call, the device screen displays standard buttons:

• you can end the call by pressing the red button;
• you can put the current call on hold;
• it is possible to turn the speaker on and off;
• opening the keyboard for typing;
• call transfer.

Call duration is not limited by time period. You can chat with the interlocutor as much as you want. If there are interruptions in communication, Viber will automatically redial. If the connection is poor, an inscription about poor signal quality will be displayed on the screen. During a call, the duration of the call is also displayed on the screen.

Open chats in Viber

The viber user has the opportunity to subscribe to various chats for free, which are open for viewing and participation. These can be chats on interesting topics or chats of famous personalities. For example, the Russian version of viber has an open chat for Ksenia Sobchak and Therr Maitz.

Understanding Sociology": Max Weber

The application offers a whole catalog of different topics. You can use the search to find interesting pages. The open chat list includes culinary groups, movie lovers, cars, sports, games and many others. Here you can communicate with viber users from any corner of the planet on topics of interest to you.

You can subscribe to the chat you like and have the opportunity to communicate with like-minded people at any time or follow the dialogues of the stars.

In the catalog of open chats, the user can read a brief description of the chat and see the number of subscribers even before opening the dialog box.

Download Viber for free - a unique application that allows you to communicate without boundaries, both temporal and territorial. If you are not yet using viber in Russian, install it on your device as soon as possible.

Max Weber

Max Weber (1864-1920) - German sociologist, historian, economist and lawyer. In his methodology, he distinguished between experiential knowledge and values; developed the concept of "understanding", according to which social action is explained through the interpretation of individual motives, and the theory of ideal types - abstract and arbitrary mental constructions of the historical process. Protestantism assigned a decisive role in the origin of Western European capitalism.

Used information notes to the book: Comte-Sponville Andre. Philosophical Dictionary / Per. from fr. E.V. Golovina. - M., 2012.

Weber (Weber) Max (1864-1920) - a German sociologist who developed questions of the methodology of social cognition, cultural studies, and economics. His research on the sociology of religion and the historical role of Protestantism had a great influence on bourgeois social science. The socio-philosophical concept of Weber was created as an alternative to the materialistic understanding of history. He believed that the economy is not the basis of social life, on the contrary, the forms of economic activity depend on cultural, primarily religious and ethical factors. A fruitful scientific study of society, according to Weber, is based on the so-called. ideal types, which are not a generalization of facts or a description of reality, but are rooted in the values ​​prevailing in society and are hypothetical models that allow ordering empirical material. “Capitalism” is such a characteristic model, the meaning of which is given by the concept of the spirit of capitalism, expressed in the pursuit of economic efficiency, profit, and the rational organization of social life. In his works The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904-1905), Economic Ethics of World Religions (1916-1919) and others, Weber substantiates the idea that Protestantism played a decisive role in the practical establishment of these features. Weber sees his historical merit in the following: 1) the Calvinist understanding of predestination for the salvation of the elect made business success a symptom of being chosen and, thus, an effective incentive for entrepreneurial activity; 2) Protestantism sanctioned the rationalization of production and the bourgeois political and legal order; 3) the Protestant (or "puritan" work ethic) approved in social practice such typically bourgeois norms and values ​​as thrift, diligence, prudence, honesty in business relations, reverent attitude to property. Of all the world religions, Protestantism most closely matched the spirit of capitalism, with which Weber associates the rapid cultural and economic progress of Western Europe and the United States. In Weber's concept, religion acquired the character of an autonomous and decisive factor in historical development.

Protestantism. [Dictionary of an atheist]. Under total ed. L.N. Mitrokhin. M., 1990, p. 66-67.

Other biographical materials:

Frolov I.T. Weber from a Marxist point of view ( Philosophical Dictionary. Ed. I.T. Frolova. M., 1991).

Devyatkova R.P. Soviet characteristics of personality and creativity ( Great Soviet Encyclopedia).

Furs V.N. German sociologist, philosopher and historian ( The latest philosophical dictionary. Comp. Gritsanov A.A. Minsk, 1998).

Gutner G.B. …and an economist ( New Philosophical Encyclopedia. In four volumes. / Institute of Philosophy RAS. Scientific ed. advice: V.S. Stepin, A.A. Huseynov, G.Yu. Semigin. M., Thought, 2010).

Kirilenko G.G., Shevtsov E.V. Influenced the whole complex of social sciences and humanities in the XX century ( Kirilenko G.G., Shevtsov E.V. Brief philosophical dictionary. M. 2010).

Mikhailova E.M. German political philosopher Political thought of modern times. Personalities, ideas, concepts: A quick guide / Comp. Mikhailova E.M. - Cheboksary: ​​CHKI RUK, 2010).

Rostislavleva N.V. He is also the founder of the sociology of music ( Russian historical encyclopedia. T. 3. M., 2015).

Danilov A.I. Weber's views, permeated with an apology for the capitalist system ( Soviet historical encyclopedia. In 16 volumes. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1973-1982. Volume 3. WASHINGTON - VYACHKO. 1963).

Zdravomyslov A.G. In all studies, Weber held the idea of ​​rationality as a defining feature of modern European culture ( Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. editors: L. F. Ilyichev, P. N. Fedoseev, S. M. Kovalev, V. G. Panov. 1983).

Akmalova A., Kapitsyn V. M., Mironov A. V., Mokshin V. K. The center of Weber’s research doctrine is the concept of “ideal type” ( A. Akmalova, V. M. Kapitsyn, A.

The Understanding Sociology of Max Weber

V. Mironov, V. K. Mokshin. Dictionary-reference book on sociology. Educational edition. 2011).

One of the founders of the German Sociological Society ( Modern Western Philosophy.

Encyclopedic Dictionary / Pod. ed. O. Heffe, V.S. Malakhov, V.P. Filatov, with the participation of T.A. Dmitriev. M., 2009).

Nikish about Max Weber ( Ernst Nikisch. The life I dared. Meetings and events. St. Petersburg, 2012).

Read further:

Weber Max. Protestant ethics and the spirit of capitalism. (Weber M. Selected works. M., 1990).

Compositions:

History of economy, P., 1923;

Agrarian history of the ancient world, M.. .

Agricultural history of the ancient world. M., 1923;

Town. Pg., 1923; Economy history. Pg., 1923;

Selected works. M., 1990;

Favorites. Society image. M., 1994;

Selected political works. M., 2002;

About Russia. M., 2006;

Gesammelte Aufsatze zur Religionssoziologie. Bd, I-III, Tubingen, 1920-1921;

Wirtschaft and Gesellsehaft. Tubingen, 1921;

Wirtschaft and Gesellschaft, Tubingen, 1956;

Gesammelte Aufsatze zur Wissenschaflslehre, Tubingen, 1922;

Gesammelte Aufsatze zur Soziologie und Sozialpolitik, Tubingen. 1924.

Gesammelte Aufsatze zur Religions-soziologie, Bd 1-3, Tubingen, 1920-21;

Gesammelte politische Schriften, Tubingen, 1958; in Russian translation - City, P., 1923;

Literature:

Gaidenko P.P., Davydov Yu.N. History and rationality. The Sociology of Max Weber and the Weberian Renaissance. M., 1991;

Danilov A.I., Problems of agrarian history of the early Middle Ages in German historiography of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, M., 1958, p. 96 - 105;

Kon I. S., Positivism in sociology, L., 1964, ch. 5;

Bendix R. Max Weber. An intellectual portrait, N. Y., 1960.

Bendix R. The image of society in Max Weber // Weber M. Favorites. Society image. M., 1994;

Neusykhin A.I. "Empirical Sociology" by Max Weber and the Logic of Historical Science // Ibid.;

Neusykhin AI Max Weber's sociological study of the city // Ibid.;

Jaspers K. Speech in memory of M. Weber // Culturology. XX century. M., 1995;

Davydov Yu.N. Max Weber and modern theoretical sociology. M., 1998;

The life and work of Max Weber. M., 2007.

Max Weber(1864-1920) - an outstanding German sociologist, economist, historian, creator of "understanding" sociology and the theory of social action. Weber outlined his scientific views in the works “Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism”, “Basic Sociological Concepts”, “On Some Categories of Understanding Sociology”, “Economic Ethics of World Religions”, etc.

Weber called his sociology "understanding", since it is designed to reveal the meaning of people's behavior, to "understand" and "causally explain" their social actions. It was the social action of the individual that Weber brought out as the subject of sociology. Only on the basis of an analysis of the social actions of individuals, he emphasized, can such complex concepts as “society”, “state”, “people”, etc., be deeply comprehended.

Developing the theory of social action, Weber used the concept of "ideal type" introduced by him, which became central to his methodology. An “ideal type” is a mental, logical construction with the help of which a researcher must study phenomena (through determining the degree of deviation of these phenomena from a given “ideal type”).

Weber identified four "ideal types" of social action: goal-rational, value-rational, traditional, and affective:

? purposeful action- an action that implies a clear awareness of the goal, correlated with rationally meaningful means to achieve it. Purposefully acts that individual, noted Weber, whose behavior is focused on the goal, means and takes into account possible side effects. A typical example of such action is the economic behavior of the entrepreneur;

? value-rational action- an action focused on certain values ​​(moral, religious, aesthetic, etc.) accepted by the individual. As Weber noted, an individual acts value-rationally who, regardless of possible consequences, acts in accordance with his convictions and does what his duty, dignity, religious prescriptions, etc. require from him;

? traditional action- an action formed on the basis of imitation of certain social patterns of behavior, enshrined in cultural tradition and not subject to critical evaluation. Traditional action is dictated by habits, customs, beliefs. The significance of this type of action is determined by the fact that it includes a large part of the daily behavior of people, in which habits play an important role;

? affective action- an action that is due to the emotional state of the individual. The main thing in such an action is the desire for immediate satisfaction of passion, the thirst for revenge, attraction, etc. Such an action is “on the border” of meaningful human behavior.

Weber believed that the degree of distribution of one or another type of social action can be judged on the nature and level of development of the whole society. Thus, he noted that in archaic, primitive societies, affective and traditional actions predominate, and in industrial, highly organized societies, value-rational and, especially, goal-oriented actions.

The entire historical process was presented to Weber as a growing rationalization of all aspects of social life. In his interpretation, this is the result of the influence of several phenomena that carried a rational beginning, namely, ancient science, especially mathematics, supplemented in the Renaissance with experiment and technology; rational Roman law, which received its further development on European soil; rational way of managing the economy, which arose due to the separation of labor power from the means of production.

The most consistent embodiment of the principle of rationality, according to Weber, is found in the rule of law, the functioning of which is based on the rational interaction of citizens and strict observance of the rule of law.

The study of rationality as the leading trend in Western European capitalism became the main theme of Weber's work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. In it, Weber showed that the emergence of capitalism in Europe had not only socio-economic, but also spiritual prerequisites. A particularly important role was played by Protestant religious ethics, whose basic principles (industriousness, thrift, honesty, prudence, etc.) greatly contributed to the development of entrepreneurship and the "spirit of capitalism."

Weber's contribution to the development of problems of political sociology, in particular the typification of political domination, is significant.

§ 7. Max Weber, his "understanding sociology" and the theory of social action

Based on his concept of social action, he identified three types of legitimate (recognized) domination: legal, traditional and charismatic.

The first type, to which purposeful rational action corresponds, presupposes obedience to the law, and not to the individual; the second type, based on traditional action, is due to customs, traditions, "the habit of a certain behavior"; the third type is based on the belief in an extraordinary gift (charisma - from the Greek "divine gift") of the bearer of power and is associated with affective actions.

Also noteworthy is Weber's idea of ​​plebiscite democracy, which makes it possible for the popular election of a political leader (president), who could, on behalf of the people, direct the activities of the bureaucratic state apparatus in the interests of the masses.

An important place in Weber's scientific work is occupied by the sociology of religion, the main task of which he saw in revealing the meaning of religious actions. An analysis of world religions led the researcher to the conclusion that there is a certain relationship between the religious morality that prevails in society and economic behavior, and religious and ethical attitudes influence the nature and methods of economic activity.

Weber made a major contribution to the development of almost all branches of sociological knowledge. His ideas, methodological principles associated with the "understanding" of social action, the construction of "ideal types", the comparative characteristics of different systems, had a great impact on the development of theoretical thought and stimulated the emergence of new trends in world sociology of the 20th century.

The Understanding Sociology of Max Weber.

Max Weber (1864-1920) was a German economist, historian and sociologist. Weber called his concept " understanding sociology". Sociology analyzes social action and tries to explain its cause. The concept of "understanding sociology"- attempts to correlate rational and emotional principles at the level of science. understanding means cognition of a social action through its subjectively implied meaning, i.e., the meaning that its subject himself puts into this action. The result of understanding according to Weber is a hypothesis of high probability, which then must be confirmed by objective scientific methods.

Main Categories of Understanding Sociology behavior, action and social action. Behavior is the most general category of activity, which becomes an action if the actor associates a subjective meaning with it. Action a clear relation to "objects" is always called.

social action is a key concept in Weber's sociology. Criteria for social action: 1) social action is endowed with meaning; directed somewhere; 2) directed at other people; on their expected behavior.

Typology of social action(Ideally types.

Max Weber: Key Ideas

According to Weber, the ideal type captures the "cultural meaning" of a particular phenomenon):

1)purposeful action- expectation of a certain behavior of objects of the external world and other people and the use of this expectation as "conditions" or "means" to achieve one's rationally set and thought-out goal (rationally in relation to goal and means);

2)value-rational- based on the belief in the unconditional value of a certain behavior, regardless of its result (rational according to the goals);

3)affective- is determined by the emotional state of the individual or affects (emotions);

4)traditional- determined by tradition or habit (habit).

Key - rationalization process– transition to a modern society; in modern society, the value-rational type dominates, and in pre-modern society, the goal-oriented and traditional type).

2 motors of this process:

1)bureaucracy.

Bureaucracy is inseparable from the emergence of the state and vice versa.

2)capitalism. Capitalism has always existed, says Weber. The archaic and modern types of capitalism are trading (they do not produce those things that sell - non-productive capitalism) and production (rationally organized; market-oriented).

The principle of freedom from value judgments- the requirement to clearly separate the statement of facts from their assessment as reprehensible or commendable, desirable or undesirable. Concerning the principle of freedom from value judgments Weber distinguishes between two problems: the problem of freedom from value judgments in the strict sense and the problem of the relationship between knowledge and value. In the first case, one should strictly distinguish between the established facts and their assessment from the worldview positions of the researcher. In the second, we are talking about the theoretical problem of analyzing the connection of any cognition with the values ​​of the cognizer, that is, the problem of the interdependence of science and the cultural context. Weber puts forward the concept cognitive interest”, which determines the choice and method of studying an empirical object in each specific case, and the concept of a “value idea”, which is determined by a specific way of seeing the world in a given cultural context.

In the sociology of power, Weber also follows his own method.

In accordance with it, three types of legitimation of power (domination):

1) rational, based on the belief in the legality of the existing order and the legitimate right of those in power to give orders;

2) traditional, based on the belief in the sanctity of traditions and the right to rule those who received power in accordance with this tradition;

3) charismatic based on belief in supernatural holiness, heroism, genius. or some other dignity of the ruler and his power, not subject to precise definition or understandable explanation.

Sociology of E. Durkheim.

Émile Durkheim(1858 - 1917) - French sociologist and philosopher, founder of the French sociological school and structural-functional analysis, one of the founders of sociology as an independent science. Founder of university sociology.

School motto D. - the requirement to consider social facts as things. subject of sociology according to Durkheim are social facts. social fact- any course of action, sharply defined or not, but capable of exerting external coercion on the individual, or otherwise: widespread throughout a given society, but at the same time having its own existence, independent of its individual manifestations. Social facts must be considered as things.

Characteristics of social fact:

1) external in relation to individuals

2) is coercive.

For a social fact to emerge, it is necessary that at least several individuals unite their actions and that this combination should give rise to some new result. Recognition of the objective reality of social facts is the central point of the sociological method according to D. Social facts are subdivided in turn to facts of collective consciousness(ideas, feelings, legends, beliefs, traditions) and morphological facts, providing order and connection between individuals: the size and density of the population, the form of housing, geographical location, etc.

e. The facts of collective consciousness include the following classes of phenomena: general ideas and feelings, moral maxims and beliefs, moral norms and legal codes of conduct, people's economic motives, and people's interests.

The problem of social solidarity- one of the central problems in the works of Durkheim. social solidarity- the main force cementing and rallying society, creating a social whole. It arises as a logical consequence of the social division of labor, that is, the socialization and distribution of people according to professions.

2 types of social solidarity:

1) mechanical(pre-industrial society), or solidarity on similar grounds, when all individuals perform the same functions and do not have individual features.

2) organic(part of the pre-industrial and the entire industrial society), when people are increasingly different from each other and begin to complement each other, by analogy with the interdependence and complementarity of body parts in the body.

Division of labor D. understood as professional specialization. It plays the part that was once played by the general consciousness; it mainly holds together social aggregates of higher types. The division of labor is a sign of a highly developed society. The reason for the division of labor D. considered population growth, causing the intensity of social life. With the growth of the population, the struggle for existence also increases; under these conditions, the division of labor is the only means of preserving and maintaining this society.

empirical research- there is a social fact that can be explained sociologically. Sociologism- explanation of social facts sociologically.

A social fact requiring a social explanation suicide. The phenomenon of suicide is not individual according to D. according to the concept put forward by D., suicide rate yav-with the function of several social variables: relationships in religious, family, political, national and other groups. He identified 4 types of suicide:

1)egoistic- is created by reasons that cause the distance of the individual from society, which ceases to influence him in a regulatory way

2) altruistic- occurs when personal interests are completely absorbed by social ones, when the integration of the group is so great that the individual ceases to exist as an independent unit.

3) anomic- occurs mainly during major social upheavals, economic crises, when the individual loses the ability to adapt to social transformations, new social requirements and loses contact with society. D. introduces the concept of anomie - the disintegration of the social fabric; lack of social norms; standard vacuum. Anomie is stress for the individual. Thus, the weakening or absence of social regulation, disorderly, unregulated social activity underlies anomic suicide.

4) fatalistic- occurs as a result of increased control of the group over the individual.

The most valuable feature of Durkheim's analysis of suicide is disclosure of the essence of this phenomenon as generated by the crisis state of society.

Durkheim believed religion social phenomenon. He believed that religious phenomena could only arise in society. The scientist himself was an agnostic. Durkheim refused to regard religion as a mere product of the delusion of the human mind or self-deception. In his opinion , religion- this is such a sphere of human activity, where, speaking of the gods, they mean social reality.

10. Sociology of G. Simmel.

Georg Simmel(1858-1918) - German philosopher and sociologist, one of the main representatives of the late "philosophy of life". Developed mainly problems of philosophy of culture and sociology.

Sociology considered the geometry of the social world. Sociology of Simmel: concept triangle.

"(society)"

form providers

man (atom) culture

Sociology, according to Simmel, should study the forms of socialization. The concept of "form" is of key importance in Simmel's work. There is no single form. Simmel has no society. The place of society in Z. takes socialization. Pure (formal) sociology studies forms of socialization that exist in any of the historically known societies, relatively stable and repetitive forms of interpersonal interactions. Forms of social life- this is domination, subordination, rivalry, division of labor, formation of parties, solidarity, etc. All these forms are reproduced, filled with appropriate content, in various groups and social organizations, such as the state, religious society, family, economic association, etc. D. Simmel believed that pure formal concepts have limited value, and the project of F. s. can only be realized when these identified pure forms of social life are filled with historical content. What is the basis of the principle of synthesizing "socialization"? Z. begins to consider this issue from the standpoint of representing society as a set of self interacting with each other.

Sociology proceeds from the fact that the same form can be filled with different contents, just as the same content can appear in different forms. In turn, forms of socialization even in the foreseeable future it will not be possible to decompose into some simpler elements. Therefore, forms as such can be associated only with a limited range of phenomena. In other words, form as a phenomenon rarely exists in its pure form. Form is a category of knowledge. Category is a tool for constructing the world.

Characteristic features of the form: 1) the form juxtaposes several contents, thereby forming a set; 2) becoming a set, these contents are separated from others; 3) the form arranges the compared contents.

According to Simmel, it is the form that helps to overcome the fragmentation of parts and opposes everything that does not have a form. Form and matter oppose each other.

Triple classification of social forms:

1) processes. Fashion is a process. An example of Simmel's analysis of the social process as a form of socialization is his fashion research. Fashion, writes Simmel, involves both imitation and individualization. A person who follows fashion at the same time distinguishes himself from others and asserts his belonging to a certain layer or group. Fashion testifies to the possibility of individual achievement.

2) types. Types according to Z. are- a rich man, a poor man, an adventurer, a cynic, a coquette, a professional, an amateur, "an insider", a stranger, etc. Example - aristocrat. He values ​​his personal freedom and independence, outwardly remains calm, avoids professionalism, standardized work for the sake of earning money, a man of leisure.

3) development scenarios. They replace extrapolations and linear forecasts. When constructing development scenarios, accurate analysis, intuition and sociological imagination are combined.

Z. considers modern socio-cultural development as a constant strengthening gap between form and content. Specifically this is expressed in intellectualization of society and the development of the monetary economy.

social content does not require its own, specifically sociological interpretation, since it is at the same time the subject of other sciences. So sociology should be formal aspects. Content becomes social only through forms of mutual influence or socialization.

« Formal sociology is an integral part of the general philosophical and cultural-philosophical concept. Its main concepts are “content” (historically determined goals, motives, motivations of human interactions) and "form"(universal way of embodiment and realization of historically changeable contents). In the totality of interactions(the form plus the content “filling” it) the society is realized. The task of "pure" sociology– study and classification of forms. The task of "philosophical» sociology - tracing the historical fate of these forms in connection with their culturally examined content.

Examples:

Form- family life; content- emotions, moods.

Form- the poor; content- deprivation of something that everyone has by virtue of the usual order of things.

Form- an aristocrat content- nobility of blood.

Didn't find what you were looking for? Use the Google search on the site:

Abstract by Irina Bosykh based on the work of M. Weber "City"

Methods of scientific and philosophical knowledge: "understanding sociology" by M. Weber. The concept of "ideal type" and its general theoretical meaning. The work of M. Weber "City".

"Understanding Sociology" by M. Weber. The concept of "ideal type" and its general theoretical meaning.

Weber's methodological guidelines:

1. He does not consider either society or other social groups to be subjects of action, since a certain subjective meaning is associated with the latter, which only individuals have.

2. Since the actions of the latter are meaningful, sociology must also be "understanding", capable of revealing this meaning through interpretation.

The formation of Weber's views was influenced by the ideas of Dilthey, who put forward hermeneutics as a methodology for the sciences of spiritual activity.

Analysis of the process of formation of typical concepts is the most important merit of Weber in the development of the methodology of sociology. An ideal type is a mental construct.

This process can best be illustrated For example theoretical analysis of the market system of the economy, which gives us an ideal picture of the economic processes taking place there. We assume that the market is free competition, each participant behaves rationally, none has advantages over the other. It is clear that such conditions do not exist in the real market.

Nevertheless, this ideal type of market makes it possible to establish how much this particular market approaches or diverges from the ideal market. On this basis, one can further identify its characteristics and causal relationships between its elements. This method is used to study social, historical, cultural humanitarian phenomena.

Weber writes: “in research, the ideal-typical concept is a means for making a correct judgment about the causal reduction of elements of reality. The ideal type is not a hypothesis, it only indicates in which direction the formation of hypotheses should go. By creating typical concepts and establishing general rules, according to Weber, sociology, like any generalizing science, loses a certain completeness in comparison with concrete reality. Instead, it achieves the unambiguity of its concepts, and most importantly, it reveals more deeply the meaning of social behavior and actions, thanks to which it becomes understanding sociology.

M. Weber "City"

Both in the past and in the present, there has not been and is not a simple, unambiguous answer to the question of what is considered a city, what is its specific historical meaning, whether it has a stable function and program. There is some convention in its definition. Usually, either a whole set of indicators is set at once, or one decisive one is specified (number of population, functions, sectoral employment, etc.) and on their basis all settlements are divided into cities and non-towns - villages.

The problem of cities of various specific historical types — ancient, ancient, medieval feudal, modern (capitalist, socialist, colonial, Third World), postmodern, etc. — has long been the subject of scientific knowledge. At first, the city was studied, as it were, in passing, along with other phenomena and processes, to which general complex works on history, economics, culture, geography, architecture, and art were devoted. And only from the end of the 19th century. the city becomes an independent and full-fledged object of study as a subject of the historical process and action. Since the 1920s, the city has been a phenomenon of close and comprehensive knowledge of the emerging scientific discipline: the sociology of the city.

Max Weber tried to give a number of generalizations and concepts for application to the study of essential problems and that is why he introduces into his methodology ideal type category. This is a logical simplification of the tendencies inherent in a complex reality, built on the basis of a one-sided point of view chosen by the sociologist. Weber insisted that scientific concepts are unable to capture reality, because it is infinite and too complex for the human mind to fully comprehend.

Any social phenomenon or process is described and explained through a deviation from the corresponding ideal type. Therefore, concepts are always established not as final, exhaustive, categorical assessments, but rather as a heuristic tool that helps to compare and measure reality for the purpose of further research and explanation. Thus, the ideal type is a tool for understanding reality.

In his book "City" Weber uses ideally - a typical method of analysis. But the peculiarity of this particular Weberian work lies in the fact that the comparative historical method is equally a method of analysis here. It can be said that in the "City" it is not so much the ideal types of various phenomena that are compared, but these phenomena themselves, and ideal-typical concepts play a predominantly orienting role. Weber looks for the common in the individual, with an emphasis on finding commonalities among various individual processes. I have translated the article into a spreadsheet.

	town	not a city
	closed settlement. The houses are closely adjacent to each other. It's not a determining factor.	One, several dwellings. Weber, Max The houses are closely adjacent to each other.
	A large number of residents. There are cities with several hundred people. It's not a determining factor.	There are villages of several thousand people.
	It's a joint settlement before that alienaccording to the place of residence of people. There is no personal acquaintance with each other, specific to the society of neighbors. Residents are united in various communities, workshops, guilds, trade unions. Membership in board districts, city blocks, streets. Performing certain duties and receiving privileges for this.	Centuries-old family ties.
	The inhabitants are engaged in various crafts and trade.	The inhabitants are engaged in agriculture. But, there are "fishing villages" in Russia (Palekh, Fedoskino, Zhestovo, Khokhloma, Dymkovo), Asia.
	There were cities that owned suburban lands, forest, had their own arable lands and pastures. It's not a determining factor.	Ownership of land, forest, river, lake, pastures.
	Market in Europe (the bazaar in the East), where regular exchange of goods is carried out, it satisfies daily economic needs. Supervision of the market gradually passed from the lord to the city councils.	Periodic fairs and overseas markets, seasonal after harvest.
	The presence of a fortress in ancient, European, Eastern and ancient Egyptian cities. In Japan, this feature was absent. Sparta was proud of the absence of walls. Athens did not immediately acquire walls. It's not a determining factor.	In China, all villages were surrounded by walls. Slavic villages had a high palisade with one entrance; cattle were herded into the center of the village at night.
	high shaft, deep ditch. East Jordan, in Germany. It's not a determining factor.	Some villages had a rampart and a moat.
	Administrative center separated from the inhabitants (in China, the Forbidden City). There is a right and a court. Complex stratification of urban residents by class. Official authority: collegial board governor position of the observant of orthodox rites sheriff, at the same time the head of the city nobility workshops of butchers, grain merchants, artisans, etc. city ​​blocks with their elders	The administrative center (village head) was not separated from the inhabitants, all issues are resolved by the community. Oikos and "princely cities" are equated with country estates. Although these centers met economic and political needs. All this was for the needs of one man and his family. Oikos - in antiquity and the early Middle Ages, a large estate based on subsistence farming, not connected with the market.
	Permanent residence of the military garrison. Military-political market as a place of military training and recruitment of troops.	The people defended themselves.
	Taxation for craft and trade. City at the crossroads of the trade route, a variety of duties (military, as a messenger). It's not a determining factor. Freedom from taxes and duties from outside the city.	In the village communities there was a forced crop rotation, regulated use of pastures, a ban on the export of straw, a ban on the use of forests.
	Square central. It could also be a place of tournaments and races. Located in front of the municipal palace. It's not a determining factor.	In the village there is a central street or square (depending on how the houses stand).
	State institutions, educational institutions, library, courthouse, prison, administrative buildings.	Public outbuildings. Mill. Barn.
	Problem unemployment in the field of his craft since antiquity and its solution through the construction of state structures, as Pericles did. It's not a determining factor.	There is unemployment. Landless peasants went to the city to work. The money earned was given to corvée dues.
	Slave trade, Slave work. It's not a determining factor.
	money economy.	Natural economy.
	The division of urban territory into quarters and districts existed in antiquity, in the Middle Ages, in the cities of the East and Asia.

Type "city of manufacturers" - there are factories, manufactories and domestic industries, goods are sent to other areas.

Type "agricultural city" - a wide section of the population satisfies its need for food on its own farm, sells the surplus on the market. The larger the city, the smaller the land plot, the limited use of pasture and forest. A number of medieval cities in Germany and other countries had land and forest land. In antiquity they even had arable land. A full citizen of antiquity was a resident of the city, owning land.

Type "city of consumers" - large consumers receive rents, income from their business enterprises, interest on securities and dividends or bonuses.

Type "city political" - in this part of the city lives the nobility, the king, nobles, seniors. A separate class of citizens who have privileges.

Type "economic city" - City-city, shopping districts, usury, banks, pawnshops, transactions with securities are carried out.

Type "garrison city" - as residents whose political and legal status was determined by their nature by the obligation to preserve and guard the fortress.

The transition from "agricultural city" to "consumer city", "producer city" or "economic city" was fluid. The city itself could be divided into parts according to types and not everywhere they are delimited territorially. More often one type is superimposed on another. In South India, the city of the nobility was adjacent to the economic city.

Type of medieval western city. And the type of Asian and Eastern city.

The medieval city was not only an economic center of trade and crafts, a political fortress and a garrison seat, an administrative judicial district, but also an oath-bound brotherhood, an oath-commune, and was considered a corporation in the legal sense. It was first of all a union, constituted or understood as a brotherhood, in which there always exists a corresponding religious symbol: the cult of the city union of burghers, the god of the city or the city saint.

This is the complete opposite of an Asian city. But there is something in common with the Asian and Eastern city: a market, a trade and craft center, a fortress, merchant guilds and craftsmen's workshops. The general difference between a medieval city and an Asian city is in the absence of a magical-animistic connection of free citizens with castes and clans with their tabooing. In Asian cities, ancestor worship and caste restrictions prevented unification.

Type of ancient city.

A typical ancient city with a tribal system. Always a seaside city, there was no polis that was located further than one day's march from the coast. The center of power of noble families was the city. The possessions of the nobility were, first of all, land. The needs were met by the duties of the slaves. The political and economic cities of the country are large landowners, creditors of merchants and lenders to peasants. The power of the city nobility is based on city revenues. The ancient city was originally a community of warriors. The citizen was first and foremost a soldier. In antiquity, the inadmissibility of entrepreneurship among noble families was taken for granted, they only provided capital in very large quantities. "Honorable slacker", i.e. leading a chivalrous lifestyle. Major bankers and merchants did not belong to noble families of knights. The coexistence of slave and free labor ruled out the possibility of the emergence of workshops in antiquity.

Type of plebeian city.

In Italian cities, the appearance of the popolo layer. Economically popolo consisted of entrepreneurs and artisans. In Italy, the concept of popolo was not only economic, but also political; being a special political community within a commune with its own officials, its own finances and military forces, it was a state within a state, the first recognized illegitimate and revolutionary political union. The reason for this phenomenon in Italy was the great development of economic and political means of domination by the urban nobility leading a chivalrous lifestyle. The opposing popolo union was based on the brotherhood of trade unions.

German sociologist, creator of "understanding" sociology and the theory of social action. His main works are: "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism", "Basic Sociological Concepts", "On Some Categories of Understanding Sociology", etc.

Weber called his sociology "understanding" since it is designed to reveal the meaning of people's behavior, to "understand" and "explain" their social actions. Exactly social action he singled out as subject of sociology. Social actions are expressed in the actions of people, focused on achieving certain conscious or unconscious actions. Using your concept "ideal type" Weber identified four "ideal types" of social action (Appendix, Diagram 4):

§ purposeful rational- aimed at achieving a certain result (for example, the economic behavior of an entrepreneur);

§ value-rational - focused on certain values ​​(moral, religious, aesthetic, etc.) adopted by the individual (the captain who stands on the bridge of a sinking ship to the end);

§ traditional - dictated by established habits and customs. beliefs;

§ affective - due to an emotional state, a strong feeling.

Of all the listed types, only the first two. according to Weber, are social, or rational(conscious), since a person performs the third action automatically, according to traditions, and the fourth - unconsciously, obeying feelings (affects). Weber also noted that the degree of distribution of one or another type of social action determines the nature and level of development of the society itself. So. industrial, highly organized societies are characterized by value-rational and, especially, goal-oriented actions, while archaic, primitive societies are characterized by traditional and affective actions.

Using his concept of social action, Weber tried to systematize the variety of forms of political domination and identified three types of legitimate (recognized) domination:

§ legal- based on purposeful rational action, involves subordination to rationally justified rules, laws, and not to the individual:

§ traditional - based on traditional action, due to adherence to traditions, customs, “habit for certain behavior”;

§ charismatic - based on faith in the extraordinary, exceptional abilities of the bearer of power (from the Greek. charisma- grace, divine gift) and is associated with affective actions.

Weber proceeded from the fact that in the historical process the degree of rationality of social actions and, in general, of all aspects of life grows. The principle of rationality finds the most consistent embodiment in the rule of law, which functions on the basis of goal-oriented and value-rational interactions between the rulers and the ruled.

According to theories of rational bureaucracy Weber, the more complex society and production processes, the greater the need arises for a special class of bureaucracy, the main occupation of which is professional management. According to Weber, the ideal manager (bureaucrat) must meet the following characteristics:

§ as little as possible in their activities be guided by

§ emotions, but more rational considerations;

§ Equally (impersonally) treat everyone who comes into contact with

§ him in the process of implementation of management decisions:

§ clearly comply with the requirements of formal rules, instructions;

§ at work, perceive yourself as a function, a “detail” of the management mechanism.

Weber's work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, in which he shows how the ethical principles of Protestantism (thrift, honesty, hard work) contribute to the emergence of capitalism, received worldwide fame. Studying world religions, Weber came to the conclusion that. that there is a certain relationship between the religious morality prevailing in society and the economic behavior of people, when religious and ethical views influence the nature and motives of economic activity.

Weber also laid the foundations for modern theories of social stratification. He believed that not only the economic factor in the form of property (the theory of Marxism), but also political (power L and status (prestige) can be considered as criteria for social stratification, which due to this becomes multidimensional.

Max Weber can be called the Leonardo da Vinci of sociology. He developed all the basic theories that today form the foundation of sociology.

In the 19th century began to take shape psychological direction in sociology. The most prominent representatives of the psychological school in sociology were G. Tarde, G. Lebon and F. Tönnies. The merit of these scientists lies in the fact that they created the socio-psychological concept of sociology and tried to explain the role of the subjective factor in history.

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

RUSSIAN STATE

TRADE AND ECONOMIC UNIVERSITY

Management department

Department of Sociology and Political Science

TEST

By discipline: "Sociology"

On the topic "Sociology of Max Weber".

Performed:

2nd year student

Correspondence form of education

Group 21/2

Romanova E.V.

Checked:

Prof. Sedelnikov S.S.

MOSCOW 2008

Introduction 4

1. Creative periods 5

2 Works 6

3 Sociology of Max Weber 8

3.1. Understanding sociology and the theory of social action 8

3.2. Sociology of political power 14

3.3. Sociology of Religion 17

Conclusion 20

References 22

Introduction

Max Weber (1864 - 1920) - German sociologist, social philosopher, culturologist and historian. It can be safely called the Leonardo da Vinci of sociology. His basic theories today form the foundation of sociology: the doctrine of social action and motivation, the social division of labor, alienation, the profession as a vocation.

He developed: the foundations of the sociology of religion; economic sociology and sociology of labor; urban sociology; theory of bureaucracy; the concept of social stratification and status groups; fundamentals of political science and the institution of power; the doctrine of the social history of society and rationalization; the doctrine of the evolution of capitalism and the institution of property.

The achievements of Max Weber are simply impossible to enumerate, they are so huge. In the field of methodology, one of his most important achievements is the introduction of ideal types. M. Weber believed that the main goal of sociology is to make as clear as possible what was not such in reality itself, to reveal the meaning of what was experienced, even if this meaning was not realized by the people themselves. Ideal types make it possible to make historical or social material more meaningful than it was in the actual experience of real life.

Weber's ideas permeate the entire structure of modern sociology, forming its foundation. Weber's creative legacy is enormous. He contributed to the theory and methodology, laid the foundations for the branches of sociology: bureaucracy, religion, city and labor.

M. Weber himself created many scientific works, including: “Protestant ethics and the spirit of capitalism” (1904-1905), “Economy and society”, “Objectivity of social-scientific and socio-political knowledge”, “Critical studies in the field of logic sciences of culture”, “On some categories of understanding sociology” (1913), “Basic sociological concepts”.

The development of sociological ideas about society has been on the rise all the time - from Plato and Aristotle to Machiavelli and Hobbes, and from them to Comte and Marx. With each step our knowledge deepened and enriched. The ideas of M. Weber became the highest expression. He not only created the most complex theory of society in the historical period under consideration, but also laid the methodological foundation of modern sociology, which was even more difficult to do.

Thanks to M. Weber and his colleagues, the German school dominated world sociology until the First World War.

1. Creative periods

The first period (until 1898) - before a creative turning point associated with a health disorder. Weber very quickly made his professional career, starting to work as an economic and legal historian. There was a historically established school of both law and economics, and Weber adhered to this school. However, he was critical of the tendency to combine science, art and ethics, believing that science is not of a value nature. The first period of M. Weber's work is characterized by an interest in science: modern and ancient capitalism, the opening of a trading society in the Middle Ages, the legal division between personal property and ownership of the means of production. M. Weber considers the latter to be important for the emergence of modern capitalism. The disease began in 1898 and for four years he could not start creative work. It was during these years that Weber rethinks the origins and motives of human activity.

Second period (1903-1910). After an illness, in 1902, he became interested in methodological issues. To be sure, his personal crisis influenced his creation of the theory of capitalism. M. Weber adhered to the point of view that the ethics that he implemented in his life could not be interpreted materialistically. People in their lives follow not only their selfish interests. From the point of view of an egoist, it is pointless to accumulate capital for the sake of capital, to make a career for the sake of a career, there are forces that are inexplicable materialistically. On the other hand, there was a need to defend the logic of the historical approach, which he had been developing for a long time. At the beginning of the 20th century, such philosophical currents as positivism and materialism began to develop rapidly. At this time, Weber is characterized by attempts to form ideas beyond materialism and idealism. To understand a person who acts not only under the auspices of egoism, but also as a person capable of action for the sake of action. According to the wife of the philosopher Mariana, Max Weber makes an extraordinary discovery during these years: it turns out that a specific type of rationalism permeates economics and politics, determines the relationship of man to nature, the relationship between people, and the dominance of rationalism grows along with the development of technology and science. In 1910, M. Weber substantiated the rationalism of science and art, based on the development of the values ​​of Western society.

In the third period (1910-1920) of his work, M. Weber worked on the development of the rational foundations of religion, tried to analyze all forms of religion and the ways of people's actions that they give rise to. What is the nature of professional ethics? How did it come about? How can it be explained? These and similar questions worry M. Weber during this period of his life.

2 Works

According to a number of researchers of Weber's works, one of his main works is considered "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism", in the continuation of which Weber wrote a comparative analysis of the most significant religions and analyzed the interaction of economic conditions, social factors and religious beliefs. This work was first published in 1905 in Germany and since then has been one of the best works on the analysis of the causes of the emergence of modern capitalism.

Others consider Weber's main work "Economy and Society". This work is one project implemented in two versions. The first version was written in 1910-14, the other - in 1919-20. Both parts were left unfinished by the author, they represent a sketch of a future book. The first part is devoted to the peculiarities of the Western development of capitalism, the second - to historical issues. At the same time, socialism, understood as rational, is considered an integral part of Western development. Rational capitalism and rational socialism are the two alternatives in which society has developed.

But the heart of the philosophical heritage of M. Weber are works related to economic ethics and the sociology of religion. According to the philosopher himself, sociology deals with the understanding of specific historical events, reality, it must establish general rules, but this is not a goal, but a means, because the ideal of the natural sciences is rejected as unacceptable.

3 Sociology of Max Weber

3.1. Understanding sociology and the theory of social action

M. Weber is the founder of "understanding" sociology and the theory of social action, who applied its principles to economic history, to the study of political power, religion, and law. The main idea of ​​Weberian sociology is the substantiation of the possibility of maximum rational behavior, which manifests itself in all spheres of human relationships. This idea of ​​Weber found its further development in various sociological schools of the West, which resulted in a kind of "Weberian renaissance".

The methodological principles of Weberian sociology are closely connected with other theoretical systems characteristic of social science of the last century - the positivism of Comte and Durkheim, the sociology of Marxism.

The influence of the Baden school of neo-Kantianism is especially noted, primarily the views of one of its founders G. Rickert, according to which the relationship between being and consciousness is built on the basis of a certain relationship of the subject to value. Like Rickert, Weber distinguishes between the attitude to value and evaluation, from which it follows that science should be free from subjective value judgments. But this does not mean that the scientist should give up his own predilections; they just shouldn't interfere with scientific developments. Unlike Rickert, who considers values ​​and their hierarchy as something suprahistorical, Weber believes that: "Value" is "determined by the nature of the historical epoch, which determines the general line of progress of human civilization." 1 In Weber's concept they are peculiarly refracted in categories of an ideal type, which constitute the quintessence of his methodology of the social sciences and are used as a tool for understanding the phenomena of human society and the behavior of its members.

So, according to Weber, the sociologist must correlate the analyzed material with economic, aesthetic, moral values, based on what served as values ​​for the people who are the object of study. In order to understand the real causal relationships of phenomena in society and give a meaningful interpretation of human behavior, it is necessary to construct invalid - ideally extracted from empirical reality - typical constructions that express what is characteristic of many social phenomena. At the same time, Weber considers the ideal type not as the goal of knowledge, but as a means to reveal the "general rules of events."

According to Weber, the ideal type as a methodological tool allows:

first, to construct a phenomenon or human action as if it were taking place under ideal conditions;

secondly, consider this phenomenon or action regardless of local conditions.

It is assumed that if ideal conditions are met, then in any country the action will be performed in this way. That is, the mental formation of the unreal, ideally typical - a technique that allows you to understand how this or that historical event really proceeded. And one more thing: the ideal type, according to Weber, allows us to interpret history and sociology as two areas of scientific interest, and not as two different disciplines. This is an original point of view, based on which, according to the scientist, in order to identify historical causality, it is first necessary to build an ideal - typical construction of a historical event, and then compare the unreal, mental course of events with their real development. Through the construction of an ideal - typical researcher ceases to be a simple extra of historical facts and gains the opportunity to understand how strong the influence of general circumstances was, what is the role of the impact of chance or personality at a given moment in history.

Sociology, according to Weber, is "understanding", because it studies the behavior of an individual who puts a certain meaning into his actions. A person's action acquires the character of a social action if two moments are present in it: the subjective motivation of the individual and the orientation towards the other (others). Understanding motivations, "subjectively implied meaning" and referring it to the behavior of other people are the necessary moments of sociological research proper, Weber notes, citing the example of a man chopping wood to illustrate his considerations. So, you can consider cutting firewood only as a physical fact - the observer understands not the cutter, but the fact that firewood is being chopped. You can consider the cutter as a living being with consciousness, interpreting his movements. It is also possible that the meaning of the action, subjectively experienced by the individual, becomes the center of attention. questions are asked: “Is this person acting according to the developed plan? What is this plan? What are his motives? In what context of meanings are these actions perceived by him? It is this type of "understanding", based on the postulate of the existence of an individual together with other individuals in a system of specific coordinates of values, that serves as the basis for real social interactions in the life world. Max Weber defines social action as follows: "Social action ... correlates in its meaning with the behavior of other subjects and is focused on it" 2 . Based on this, an action cannot be considered social if it is purely imitative, when an individual acts like an atom of the crowd, or when he focuses on some natural phenomenon (for example, an action is not social when many people open their umbrellas during the rain) .