In addition to tropes, stylistic figures are also important means of imagery in the Russian language.
Stylistic figure(Latin “stіlus” - writing pencil and “figura” - image, appearance) - unusual syntactic phrases that violate language norms and are used to decorate speech. Stylistic figures are quite common in poetry, where they are intended not only to individualize the author’s speech, but also to enrich it with emotional nuances and make the artistic image more expressive. Therefore, stylistic figures are also called figures of poetic speech. It is necessary to strictly distinguish stylistic figures from tropes that are not built according to a syntactic principle. Among the main and most commonly used stylistic figures are anaphora, epiphora, ring (anepiphora), parallelism, gradation, ellipsis, inversion, chiasmus, anacoluth, asyndeton, polysyndeton. Bogdanova L.I. Stylistics of the Russian language and culture of speech. Lexicology for speech acts. - M.: Nauka, 2011. - 520 p.
Let's analyze them in more detail. Anaphora(from Greek - bringing up, repetition) - a stylistic figure that is formed by repeating words or phrases at the beginning of adjacent linguistic units. For example, " I swear I am the first day of creation, I swear his last day. I swear the shame of crime And the triumph of eternal truth...” (M. Lermontov).
Most often, anaphora is found in poetic texts, less often in prosaic texts. Prosaic anaphora usually connects the beginnings of adjacent sentences, for example: “ Whatever people tried, gathered in one small place..., no matter how they stoned the ground so that nothing would grow on it...” (L. Tolstoy). Very rarely, anaphoric repetition connects not adjacent, but separated linguistic units in the text, for example, the beginnings of chapters of a story or novel. Prosaic anaphora most often enhances and makes more emotionally expressive the content of what is being told, although it can also perform a purely compositional function, which usually marks anaphoric repetition in poetic texts, where anaphora serves as an additional (along with a constant pause) signal of the end of the previous line and start of the next one. Often, anaphoric repetition can be maintained throughout the entire poetic work (usually small in volume).
The opposite of anaphora is such a stylistic figure as epiphora- repetition of individual words or phrases at the end of adjacent linguistic units: “Here we came to the shore guests, Tsar Saltan is calling them on a visit..." (A. Pushkin). Epiphora is much less common in prose: “I would like to know why I titular councilor? Why exactly titular councilor? (N. Gogol). Sometimes also isolated epanaphora (joint or anadiplosis) - repetition of a word or phrase at the end of the previous linguistic unit, as well as at the beginning of the next one, for example: “The barrels rolled with a fierce potion, With a fierce potion, with black gunpowder..." (folklore). Such repetition is most often found in folklore, but sometimes, mainly as a compositional device, it is also used in prose. An interesting example is contained in the famous novel M. Bulgakov “The Master and Margarita”, the twenty-fourth chapter of which ends like this: “... and as much as she liked, at least until dawn, Margarita could rustle the letters of the notebooks, look at them and kiss them, and re-read them again: - The darkness that came from the Mediterranean, covered the garden hated by the procurator... Yes, darkness,” and the twenty-fifth begins with the words: "The darkness that came from the Mediterranean, covered the garden hated by the procurator. The hanging bridges connecting the temple with the terrible Anthony Tower have disappeared, and an abyss has fallen from the sky...” Krupchanov L. M. Theory of Literature. - M.: Nauka, 2012. - 360 p.
Ring or Anepiphora is a stylistic figure of speech that connects by repetition of individual words or phrases the beginning and end of adjacent linguistic units (paragraph, stanza) and/or one unit (sentence or poetic line). Explaining the name of this figure, literary theorists, in particular, write: “The repetition of the initial word or phrase at the end of that very sentence, verse, stanza or whole play, because of which this sentence or a series of sentences that form a logical unity receive a certain kind of rounding; hence the name of the figure.” For example: " In vain! Wherever I look, I meet failure everywhere, And it is painful to my heart that I am obliged to lie all the time; I smile at you, but inside I cry bitterly, In vain"(A. Fet).
Often Anepiphora is also simploc- a combination of anaphora and epiphora, which is reflected in the very name of the term: “ Young people are treasured everywhere, Old people are honored everywhere."(V. Lebedev-Kumach). Artistic text. Structure and poetics. - St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg University Publishing House, 2005. - 296 p.
The next similar stylistic figure is parallelism(Greek “the one that comes next”) or syntactic parallelism is a figure based on the same type of syntactic construction of two or more adjacent linguistic units, mainly lines of poetic text, which gives rise to a feeling of their symmetry. For example: " Your mind is as deep as the sea, Your spirit is as high as the mountains."(V. Bryusov).
Most often, parallelism, symmetry in the syntactic construction of adjacent poetic lines is accompanied by a figurative comparison of the thoughts expressed in them - the so-called figurative psychological parallelism: for example, between the life of nature and fragments of human life. Parallelism can often involve symbols, which we wrote about earlier when analyzing tropes. Therefore, we can come to the conclusion that tropes and stylistic figures do not exclude, but complement each other.
Parallelism occupies an important place in the Russian language, especially in poetry, and has been known since ancient times. Most often it is also used in folk poetry. It gained significant popularity in romantic poetry at the beginning of the 19th century, often as a stylization of folklore motifs. This stylistic figure can form the compositional basis of a lyrical poetic work.
Gradation- this is a stylistic figure, which consists in the gradual intensification of means of artistic expression in order to increase (the so-called. menopause, for example, “In the sweet-foggy care Not an hour, not a day, not a year will leave..." E. Baratynsky) or demotion ( anticlimax, For example, " I won’t break, I won’t waver, I won’t get tired, Not a bit I will not forgive my enemies” O. Bergolz) of their emotional and semantic significance. The gradation differs according to spatio-temporal (mainly in prose), intonation-emotional (poetry) and psychological (drama) characteristics. The expressiveness of gradation is enhanced by combining it with anaphora, for example, in the famous saying of Julius Caesar: “I came, I saw, I conquered!”
Ellipsis(Greek - “omission”, “lack”) is a stylistic figure constructed by omitting a word or several words. For example, “Eyes like the sky, blue, smile, flaxen curls - everything is in Olga... (A. Pushkin). In this case, the poet omitted the word “combined” or something similar in meaning. Ellipsis can enhance the dynamism of a phrase, the tension of changes in action, emphasize laconicism, lyrical emotion, and conversational intonations. It is often found in proverbs and sayings. This figure can form the basis of an entire work of art, especially a poetic one, or part of it.
Has always been quite in demand inversion- a stylistic figure based on a violation of the order of words in a sentence that seems normalized, ordinary, for example, “ An old man obedient to Perun alone..." (A. Pushkin), instead of "An old man obedient to Perun alone." Russian, like other East Slavic languages, belongs to languages with a free order of words in sentences, however, a certain syntactic sequence, due to its familiarity, as well as due to its subordination to the logic of the unfolding of the expressed thought, seems more natural, while a change in such a sequence psychologically perceived as a deviation from a certain constant norm. Logical sequence of thought development regulates, in particular, the order of the main members of the sentence, which form a kind of syntactic skeleton of the expressed thought. The normal logical sequence of thought development presupposes its movement from what is already known (i.e., what has already been said, or what is presented as obviously known) to the unknown, what, in fact, is reported about this “already known” and fixes there are some changes in it. Since the “already known” in a sentence is usually expressed through the subject (subject of thought), and the “unknown”, new through the predicate (predicate of thought), it is natural or, as they also say, word order will be straight, in which the predicate will be placed after the subject, and inversion their order will be reversed: the predicate before the subject. Sannikov V.Z. Russian syntax in the semantic-pragmatic space. - M.: Languages of Slavic culture, 2008. - 624 p.
If the syntactic order of the main members of a sentence is regulated by the norms of the logical sequence of the unfolding of the expressed thought, then the order of the minor members of the sentence in each national language is established by the historically established norms of the syntactic construction of verbal constructions. In particular, for the Russian language it will be more natural to place complements and adverbial adverbials expressed by nouns in the position - after the word to which they relate, and definitions and adverbial adverbs in the position - before the word to which they relate. The reverse order of their placement is perceived as inverted. For example, “In the evening, in stormy autumn, In the distant the maiden was walking places..." (A. Pushkin).
Inversion individualizes and emotionally emphasizes speech and its components. But this is not its main function. The syntactically inverted order of sentence members serves, first of all, the purpose of highlighting individual words that are most significant in the context of a given utterance. This inversion function reveals itself especially clearly in the case when the inverted word not only changes its generally accepted syntactic position, but at the same time is also separated from the member of the sentence to which it is subordinated.
A type of inversion is chiasmus- a linguostylistic device used in poetry, the essence of which is to rearrange the main members of a sentence to increase the expressiveness of poetic speech, for example: “ Divide fun - everyone is ready: Nobody doesn't want sadness to share"(M. Lermontov).
A similar variety can be considered anacoluthon- a stylistic figure constructed with a violation of grammatical consistency between words, members of a sentence, for example, “ Approaching this station and looking at nature through the window, my hat flew off"(A. Chekhov). As we can see, anacoluth is used deliberately, more often to give an ironic or comic tone to speech in its given context.
Somewhat reminiscent of inversion and asyndeton or asyndeton- a stylistic figure that consists of omitting conjunctions that connect individual words and parts of phrases. For example: " Night, street, lantern, pharmacy, Pointless and dim light"(A. Blok). Non-conjunction enhances the expressiveness of speech, emphasizing the dynamic aspect in it, and serves to highlight individual words.
The opposite of asyndeton is polysyndeton or multi-union- a cluster of conjunctions that connect individual words and parts of a phrase, for example, “The ocean walked before my eyes, And swayed And thundered And sparkled And was fading away And glowed And went somewhere into infinity” (V. Korolenko). Polyconjunction is used as a means that slows down speech, serves to highlight significant words, and makes speech solemn, since it is often associated with polyconjunct syntactic constructions of biblical texts. The figure of a multi-union can be formed, firstly, by different unions. Secondly, not only by conjunctions as such, but also by other function words that receive the functions of conjunctions in the context.
Rarer stylistic figures include pleonasm and tautology, as well as amplification, paronomasia(comparison of similar sounding but different meaning words) and antithesis(contrast). Telpukhovskaya Yu.N. Russian language. Phonetics. Graphic arts. Word formation. Morphology. Syntax. Vocabulary and phraseology. - M.: Vesta, 2008. - 64 p.
Pleonasm(Greek “excess”) is a stylistic figure that is based on a synonymous repetition of the previous word, for example, “fell down”, “ gestured with his hands», « nostalgia for homeland», « top priority», « incriminate", "a hackneyed platitude." Pleonastic repetition is not logically motivated and is used as a means of stylistic diversity in speech. Most often it is used in folklore, but it is also found in original poetry.
Related to pleonasm tautology involves repetition of words with the same root, for example: “ wonderful miracle, wonderful miracle" etc.
Amplification(Latin “spread”, “increase”) - a stylistic figure that consists in the emphasized accumulation within adjacent statements (usually one, two or three sentences or a short paragraph) of the same type of language units, for example, “ Beret- like a bomb, beret- like a hedgehog, like a double-edged razor, beret, like a rattlesnake at 20, he stung a two-meter-tall snake” (V. Mayakovsky).
The lexical system of a language is multifaceted and complex. Therefore, a typology of various lexical means has not yet been developed, since it should be able to recreate the diverse range of human feelings. However, there are three main groups. Expressive means are usually classified into phonetic, syntactic and lexical.
Trope
Lexical means enhance the expressiveness of the language. They are called tropes in linguistics. Typically, tropes are used by authors of various works of art when it is necessary to describe the appearance of characters or nature.
A trope, therefore, is a figurative device that consists of using an expression or word in a figurative meaning. The purpose of this technique is not only to create a new meaning, but also to enrich, embellish speech, and give it greater expressiveness. It is necessary to distinguish between tropes and figures of speech. Examples of tropes: simile, hyperbole, metaphor, epithet, personification and periphrase.
Figure of speech
Figures of speech are special syntactic structures that serve to enhance expressiveness. These include antithesis, oxymoron, gradation, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, ellipsis, syntactic parallelism, lexical repetition, epiphora, anaphora, silence, inversion, polyunion, non-union.
The expressiveness of speech is the features of its structure that help maintain the interest and attention of the reader (listener).
Antithesis
Antithesis is a turnover consisting of a sharp opposition of characters, concepts, images, with the help of which the effect of sharp contrast arises. Antithesis helps to better contrast phenomena and depict contradictions. It is a way of expressing the author’s view of the described images, phenomena, etc. An example can be given as follows: “It lays down softly, but sleeps hard.”
Syntactic parallelism
These are the main figures of expressive speech.
Ideally, a complex syntactic whole consists of a beginning, a middle part and an ending and is separated into a paragraph. But in non-strict styles and genres (that is, not in official or scientific-academic) various kinds of transformations of the complex can be used to express the author's modality syntactic whole. It may lack one or even two of its structural components. For example: ... The badger squealed and rushed back into the grass with a desperate cry. He ran and howled throughout the forest, broke bushes and spat in indignation and pain.
There was confusion on the lake and in the forest. Without time, the frightened frogs screamed, the birds became alarmed, and right at the shore, like a cannon shot, a pound pike hit.
In the morning the boy woke me up and told me that he himself had just seen a badger treating its burnt nose. I didn't believe it. (K. Paustovsky).
The incompleteness of the first two prose stanzas is clearly felt. In the first (about the badger) this is conveyed by verbs of the imperfect form of unlimited action (ran, screamed, spat), and in the second (about the confusion) in the forest, it is conveyed by verbs with an initial meaning (they screamed, they were alarmed), which require the development of action. Such open prose stanzas allow the reader to “complete” events and fill the text with “hidden” content.
In other cases, in order to immediately immerse the reader in the situation, the beginning is omitted. For example: And he had good times (V. Shukshin) - the absolute beginning of the story.
Other transformations in the structure of a complex syntactic whole are also possible: omission of the middle part, blurring of boundaries, wedging of foreign components, etc. 2.
The relationship between a prose stanza and a paragraph can be as follows: 1) a complex syntactic whole is equal to a paragraph; 2) the paragraph includes several complex syntactic wholes; 3) a complex syntactic whole is divided into paragraphs.
The first type of relationship is typical for informative texts. It is especially necessary for poorly prepared readers (textbooks for primary schoolchildren). In artistic and journalistic prose, it gives the text lightness, clarity, transparency, and in some cases, dynamism.
The second type of relationship speaks of the need to perceive information not separately, but as a whole. This is typical for reasoning about complex, multidimensional connections between people, phenomena, events, or about inseparable phenomena and events. In literary texts, “a story within a story,” dreams, memories, etc. are usually given in one paragraph in order to highlight their inserted nature.
Dividing a complex syntactic whole into paragraphs (the third type of relationship), tearing off a sentence from it leads to the fact that the torn off part of a prose stanza acquires special significance. See, for example, the end of A. P. Chekhov’s story “The Bishop”:
A month later, a new vicar bishop was appointed, but no one remembered His Eminence Peter. And then they completely forgot. And only the old woman, the mother of the deceased, who is now an octet for her son-in-law-deacon in a remote provincial town, when she went out in the evening to meet her cow and met other women in the pasture, began to talk about children, about grandchildren, about what she had a son who was a bishop, and at the same time she spoke timidly, fearing that they would not believe her...
And in fact, not everyone believed her.
The last sentence is very closely related to the previous one; Moreover, it might not even be an independent sentence, but part of a previous complex one. But in Chekhov it is not only separated, torn off from the syntactically and semantically related previous sentence, but is also the only sentence of the new paragraph. Isolation and autonomy in the text greatly increase the semantic volume of this sentence compared to what it would have as part of a paragraph equal to a complex syntactic whole.
Dividing the text into paragraphs determines both the general tone of the narrative and the specific semantic and expressive content of its individual parts. Compare, for example, the different divisions into paragraphs of an excerpt from Mark Twain’s story “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” in the interpretation of different translators:
And then Becky, walking past the teacher’s desk, which stood not far from the door, noticed that a key was sticking out in the lock! Was it possible to miss such a rare event? She looked around - not a soul around. A minute later she was already holding the book in her hands. The title “Anatomy,” an essay by Professor So-and-so, did not explain anything to her, and she began to leaf through the book. On the very first page she came across a beautifully drawn and colored figure
naked man At that moment, someone’s shadow fell on the page: Tom Sawyer appeared at the door and glanced at the picture out of the corner of his eye. Bekkn hurriedly slammed the book shut, but in doing so accidentally tore the picture halfway through. She put the book in the drawer, turned the key and burst into tears of shame and frustration (translated by K. Chukovsky).
And so, passing by the pulpit, which stood near the doors, Becky noticed that the key was sticking out in the drawer. It was a pity to miss such a moment. She looked around and saw that there was no one around, and the next moment the book was already in her hands. The title on the first page—“Anatomy” by Professor So-and-So—told her absolutely nothing, and she began to leaf through the book. She immediately came across a very beautiful picture, all in colors: a completely naked man.
At that moment, someone's shadow fell on the page; Tom Sawyer stood on the threshold, looking into the book over her shoulder. In her haste to slam the book shut, Becky pulled it towards her and was so unsuccessful that she tore half the page. She threw the book into the box and burst into tears of shame and frustration (translated by N. Daruzes, 1953)
Due to different divisions into paragraphs, the emphasis in translations shifts significantly. In the first excerpt there is one heroine - Becky, and Tom is given in her perception; in the second there are two characters. Tom is presented as an independent hero: he becomes the culprit of what happened. The highlighting of the second paragraph and, as a consequence, the appearance of the second active hero dramatize the action.
Expressive syntax - this is the ability of syntactic units to act as expressive-stylistic means, that is, associated with achieving the expressive effect of a statement.
Stylistic figure – a figure of speech, a syntactic construction of a relatively formalized nature, that is, having an elementary syntactic scheme, model.
Question 27. Alliteration and assonance in artistic and journalistic discourses.
Alliteration- one of the types of sound writing, which consists in repeating the same or homogeneous consonant sounds to give the text sound and intonation expressiveness. Most often used in poetry. " H black h And T yes Thu e ts, / T op h at ts I am an idle people... - Mer T you lie down T sing ts/ And we celebrate Sunday T "(M. I. Tsvetaeva).
Assonance- one of the types of sound writing, which consists in repeating the same or homogeneous vowel sounds. " Roman class And Czech And y, old And ny, / excellent for And nal, dl And nal, dl And moral, / moralizing And telny And h And ny, / without romantic And creative ideas"(A.S. Pushkin. “Count Nulin”)
Alliteration and assonance create a rhythmic pattern of the text and give it musicality. These figures can be used in the function of onomatopoeia, highlight significant sections of text, and increase the expression of the text.
Question 28. Lexical repetition. Derivative repeat. Anadiplos(z)is (joint (pickup). Chain repetition. Ring (frame, rondo, coverage, framing). Definition of concepts. Basic stylistic functions.
Lexical repetition - a stylistic figure consisting of the deliberate repetition of the same word or speech structure in a visible area of the text. Lexical repetitions of various types are widely used to add expressiveness to a literary text, among them the following types are distinguished:
Anadiplosis- the last word or phrase of the first part of a speech segment is repeated at the beginning of the next part:
...where will my help come from?
My help comes from the Lord...
Anaphora- repetition of the initial parts of two or more relatively independent segments of speech (hemistiches, verses, stanzas or prose passages):
It was not in vain that the winds blew,
It was not in vain that the storm came. - Yesenin S. A.
Anaphora can be classified as figures, the use of which can actively influence the mind and feelings of the addressee. Anaphora can also serve to express the author’s feelings and emotions and enhance the figurativeness of the text.
Epiphora- a single ending, a figure in the construction of which each subsequent stanza, line or sentence ends in the same way as the previous one.
“I bless the radiance of your eyes.
In my delirium it shone for me,
I bless the smile of your lips!
She intoxicated me like wine."
(V. Ya. Bryusov);
Epiphora is used with the same stylistic tasks as anaphora.
Simploca- a combination of anaphora and epiphora, that is, lexical repetition at the beginning and end of segments of speech:
August - asters,
August - stars
August - grapes
Grapes and rowan
Rusty - August! - M. Tsvetaeva, August
Derivational repeat – a type of repetition in which not the entire word is repeated, but only some part of it (root, prefix, suffix). " Tenderer than tender your face / Whiter than white your hand” (O. Mandelstam).
Anadiplosis (joint (pickup)) - a syntactic figure in which the final words of a verse or phrase are repeated at the beginning of the next verse or phrase. "Oh, spring without end and without edge - Without end and without edge dream!" (A. Blok).
Chain repeat - a figure representing a series of hooks (joints) that follow each other. “The more you study, the more you know. The more you know, the more you forget. The more you forget, the less you know. The less you know, the less you forget. The less you forget, the more you know. This means that the less you study, the more you know” (Student joke).
Ring (frame, rondo, coverage, framing) - a figure, during the construction of which the initial word or phrase is repeated at the end of a phrase, verse, stanza or the entire poem.
“I don’t have flowers,
I am momentarily deceived by their beauty,
They will stand for a day, another, and wither,
I don't have flowers"
(N. Gumilev).
Question 29. Syntactic parallelism and chiasmus as stylistic figures.
Syntactic parallelism – a stylistic figure, which consists in the fact that adjacent parts of the text have the same structure (each subsequent sentence is constructed according to the type of the previous one / the same type of construction of subordinate clauses in a complex sentence / at the microcontext level - the same type of phrases). With complete identification of one construction with another, complete parallelism, with partial similarity of syntactic constructions - incomplete parallelism. Parallelism of adjacent syntactic constructions is possible - it is called contact - and separated by other syntactic constructions - distant parallelism.
But my river is with your river,
But my hand is with your hand
They won’t come together, my joy, until
The dawn will not catch up - the dawn
(M. Tsvetaeva).
Syntactic parallelism is often combined with anaphora and epiphora:
Chiasmus – reverse parallelism, a figure representing a mirror arrangement of members of two adjacent phrases or sentences.
« Previously, eternal thoughts were written with goose feathers, but now goose thoughts are written with eternal feathers. ».
A chiasmus can be self-sufficient, representing a complete miniature text, and in such cases it often becomes a work of edifying nature. We also find a self-sufficient chiasmus in the headlines, as well as the titles of films: “ One among strangers, a stranger among one's own "(film by N. Mikhalkova).
The artificiality of the structure of the chiasmus makes it very noticeable in the text, for this reason this technique is often used as means of attracting the addressee's attention. In addition to the excretory function, the chiasm is used as a means of rhythmically organizing a text and enhancing its imagery. Chiasmus has high potential in creating a comic effect, since there is a noticeable playful element in its structure. Chiasmus is used very effectively in formulating conclusions. Its structure contributes to the aphorism of the statement.
Question 30. The concept of a period. Types of periods. Stylistic functions.
Period - a linguistic term meaning a long complex sentence, in the first part of which the intonation goes up, and in the second - down. The poem, written in P. form, testifies to the breadth of the author’s poetic breath and great mature skill, with which only one can cope with the complex equipment of the verse, which includes several stanzas.
Thus, the following signs of periodic constructions are distinguished: 1) structural closure; 2) binary (two-membered) structure; 3) semantic-structural relationship and interdependence of parts; 4) contrasting intonation design of the parts: raising the tone in protasis and lowering the tone in apodosis; 5) a long pause between protasis and apodosis; 6) structural and semantic parallelism of the members of the parts of the period.
Graphically, the period often coincides with the paragraph, but may not be identical to it.
The most common types of P. are distinguished on the basis of the semantic connection between protasis and apodosis:
▪ temporary P. (in protasis of which the time of actions, events, phenomena that constitute the subject of speech in apodosis is indicated),
▪ cause-and-effect P. (between parts of P. – cause-and-effect relationships),
▪ defining P. (in protasis of which a person, a phenomenon representing the subject of speech in apodosis is determined),
▪ predicative P. (protasis P. contains the subject, and apodosis contains the predicate),
▪ connective P. (in the apodosis of which there is an addition, an addition to what is said in the protasis),
▪ comparative P. (a period between the parts of which comparative relations are established),
▪ comparative P. (P. containing comparison),
▪ conditional P. (in protasis which indicates the conditions under which what is described in apodosis occurs),
▪ concessive P. (in the protasis of P. of this type a description is given of the circumstances that prevent the accomplishment of what is said in the apodosis).
Question 31. Acrostic poem. Graphon. Centon. Homeotelevt. Acrophonic rearrangement (counterpetition). Anagram. Palindrome. Monorim. Logogriff. Tautogram. Simploca. Stylistic functions. Use in poetic speech.
Acrostic - a poem in which the initial letters of each verse form a word vertically.
Graphon (grafphone) - a deliberate distortion of the spelling norm, reflecting individual or dialectal violations of the phonetic norm. Interior graphons differ in their composition, which are realized as part of a word, for example English. "cause instead of because, and contact ones, which are realized at the junctions of words, for example, English. gonna instead of going to. The primary function of graphons is characterological: with their help, phonetic features are highlighted in a character’s speech that characterize him as a representative of a certain social environment, dialect, or reflect its individual characteristics. The secondary function of the graphons is determined by the ideological and aesthetic positions of the author and the entire content of the work.
Russian researcher A.P. Skovorodnikov defines graphon as a figure of speech that represents a stylistically significant deviation from the graphic standard and/or spelling norm. Thus, all graphic means of highlighting words and phrases are unlawfully classified as graphons, namely, “unusual, but motivated by the stylistic context of the writing (style) of words (different font selections, discharge, hyphenation, introduction of foreign characters into the main text, writing in capitals instead of lowercase and other graphic and spelling alternatives), as well as a figured arrangement of text on the plane of the sheet.”
Centon - a poem composed entirely of lines from other poems known to the intended reader.
Composing centons is a kind of literary game. Being a literary joke, the centon turns out to be the more comical the more familiar the reader is with the poems from which the lines were taken. It is assumed that the lines of the centon are selected in such a way that it is united by a common meaning and looks like a finished work.
The artistic effect of the centon consists in the similarity or contrast of the new context and the memory of the previous context of each fragment. Less strict centons turn into poetry of reminiscences, sometimes open, more often hidden.
Bald man with a white beard (I. Nikitin)
The Old Russian Giant (M. Lermontov)
With the young dogaressa (A. Pushkin)
Falls onto the sofa. (N. Nekrasov)
Homeoteleuton, homeoteleuton - a type of morphemic repetition in which a significant number of words with the same final part occur in a relatively small segment of text. It is considered as one of the varieties of homeology (a stylistic device consisting in the repetition of the same type of morphemes).
... this is the place where they throw, so be it, castoffs, trimmings, leftovers, sawdust, cleaning, scraps, remnants, remnants, sedums, ovids, mishearses and remnants.
T. Tolstaya, Limpopo.
Anagram - a literary device that consists of rearranging the letters or sounds of a certain word (or phrase), resulting in another word or phrase. In some cases, it is also customary to call anagrams other functionally (that is, not a literary device) mixing of the letter or sound composition of words.
vertical - wake
orange - spaniel
old regime - indissolubility
Australopithecus - water polo player
redness - pensioner
balance - willfulness
colonel - bedbug
hospital - ally
attention - Benjamin
Palindrome - a phrase structured so that it can be read both right and left, maintaining the meaning, for example: “I come with the sword of the judge,” “Attack of the sunset,” etc. A more complex type of P. (verbal, not letter) is a poem on this principle.
Monorim - a poem or part of it with a monophonic rhyme.
And recently two gazelles
They called and sang:
Is it really possible
Have all the carousels burned down?.. (K.I. Chukovsky)
Logogryph - a stylistic technique for constructing a phrase or verse by selecting such words, the sequential combination of which gives a picture of a gradual decrease in sounds (or letters) of the original long word. Logographic verses are rarely found in Russian poetry.
Logogryph in poems by you. Kamensky (“Poem about the Nightingale”):
And my heavenly pipe
Radiant,
Tautogram - a play poem in which all words begin with the same letter, for example:
My dear magician, my Maria,
Dreams a flickering beacon,
The sea hazes are rebellious,
My dear magician, my Maria,
The muddy darkness beckons with silence...
(V. Bryusov)
As a stylistic device of alliteration, the tautogram is annoying and therefore unlikely to serve as an effective means of sound expression in poetry.
Simploca - a figure of syntactic parallelism in adjacent verses, which a) have the same beginning and end with a different middle and b) on the contrary, have different beginning and end with the same middle.
There was a birch tree in the field,
There was a curly girl standing in the field.
Question 32. Rhetorical question. Rhetorical appeal. Rhetorical exclamation. Basic stylistic functions.
A rhetorical question– a figure representing an interrogative sentence with the meaning of an emotionally intensified affirmation or denial.
A rhetorical question does not require a quick answer “here and now”, but is most often asked with the aim of making the listener or reader think, calling him to co-thinking. A rhetorical question expresses various emotional shades: surprise, admiration, joy, indignation, anger, resentment, indignation, doubt, denial, censure, irony, etc.
“And it’s boring and sad, and there’s no one to give a hand to / In a moment of spiritual adversity... / Desire!.. What benefit is it in vain to desire forever?.../ And the years pass - all the best years!”(M. Yu. Lermontov);
Rhetorical appeal– a figure representing a conditional appeal to objects and phenomena, which is used to attract attention to the subject of speech of listeners and readers. Most often, rhetorical appeal is expressed by the nominative case of a noun or a part of speech that replaces it.
« My Rus'! My wife! To the point of pain
We have a long way to go!
Our path is an arrow of the Tatar ancient will
Pierced us through the chest"
(A. A. Blok).
One of the main functions rhetorical appeal - excretory: in most cases, a rhetorical appeal highlights a significant component of thought, concept, idea of a work. The role of rhetorical appeal is also significant in expressing the author’s emotions and feelings, his mood. Rhetorical appeals can create solemnity and pathosity of speech, express joy, regret and other shades of mood and emotional state.
Rhetorical exclamation- an emotionally charged sentence with exclamatory intonation.
Most often, rhetorical exclamations are found in artistic speech, journalism and oratorical prose. Basic goals use - displaying the excitement and other feelings of the character, the author’s attitude to the message:
It's a shame for the times in which such people live and act!"(F.N. Plevako. “The Case of the Luthorian Peasants”).
Anaphora Anaphora is the repetition of individual words or phrases at the beginning of the passages that make up the utterance. For example, (lexical anaphora): The winds did not blow in vain, the thunderstorm did not come in vain. The same type of syntactic constructions (syntactic anaphora) can be repeated, for example: I am standing at the high doors. I'm watching your work.
Antithesis Antithesis This is a turn in which, to enhance the expressiveness of speech, opposing concepts are sharply contrasted. For example: Where there was a table of food, there is a coffin. Often the antithesis is built on antonyms, for example: The rich feast on weekdays, but the poor grieve on holidays.
Non-union Non-union A stylistic figure consisting of the deliberate omission of connecting conjunctions between members of a sentence or between sentences. The absence of conjunctions gives the statement speed and richness of impressions within the overall picture.
For example: Swede, Russian - stabbing, chopping, cutting, drumming, clicks, grinding, thunder of guns, stomping, neighing, groaning... Wed. non-union listing of subject names to create the impression of a quick change of pictures: Booths, women, boys, shops, lanterns, palaces, gardens, monasteries, Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens, merchants, shacks, men, boulevards, towers, Cossacks, pharmacies, shops flash past fashions, balconies, lions on the gates...
Gradation Gradation This is a stylistic figure consisting of such an arrangement of words in which each subsequent one contains an increasing (less often decreasing) meaning, due to which an increase (less often weakening) of the impression it produces is created. For example: In autumn, the feather grass steppes completely change and take on their own special, original appearance, unlike anything else.
Inversion Inversion This is the arrangement of the members of a sentence in a special order, violating the usual, so-called direct order, in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Please note that not every reverse word order is an inversion: we can talk about it only when stylistic goals are set with its use - increasing the expressiveness of speech. For example: The horses were brought out. I didn't like them.
Polyconjunction Polyconjunction A stylistic figure consisting of the deliberate use of repeated conjunctions to logically and intonationally emphasize the members of a sentence connected by conjunctions, to enhance the expressiveness of speech. For example: A thin rain fell on the forests, and on the fields, and on the wide Dnieper The same when repeating the conjunction between composed sentences, for example: At night, houses burned, and the wind blew, and black bodies swayed from the wind on the gallows, and they shouted over them crows.
Rhetorical question Rhetorical question This is a stylistic figure, consisting in the fact that the question is posed not with the goal of getting an answer, but to attract the attention of the reader or listener to a particular phenomenon. For example: Do you know Ukrainian night? Oh, you don’t know Ukrainian night!
Rhetorical appeal This is a stylistic figure consisting of an emphasized appeal to someone or something to enhance the expressiveness of speech. For example: Quiet, speakers! Your words, Comrade Mauser. Rhetorical appeals serve not so much to name the addressee of speech, but rather to express an attitude towards a particular object, characterize it, and enhance the expressiveness of speech.
Silence Silence This is a turn of phrase in which the author deliberately does not fully express a thought, leaving the reader (or listener) to guess what is unspoken. For example: No, I wanted...perhaps you...I thought that it was time for the baron to die.
Ellipsis Ellipsis This is a stylistic figure consisting in the omission of any implied member of the sentence. For example: Men - for the axes The use of ellipsis gives the statement dynamism, intonation of lively speech, and artistic expressiveness.
