MINERAL ACID
MINERAL ACID, a strong inorganic acid, such as hydrochloric (HCl), NITRIC (HNO 3) or SULFURIC ACID (H 2 SO 4).
Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary.
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To prove the presence of mineral acids in dialysates, the acidity of these liquids and the presence of corresponding acids in them are determined.
Determination of the acidity of dialysates is carried out using acid-base indicators, which change their color in an acidic environment (methyl violet, methyl orange, Congo red, etc.).
A few drops of an indicator solution are added to a small volume of dialysate, the color change of which indicates the presence of acids in the test liquids. By adding a solution of methyl violet (pH range of color transition 0.1-1.5 and 1.5-3.2) to the test liquid with pH = 1.5...3.2, the green color of the indicator turns purple. The red color of methyl orange turns yellow at pH = 3.0...4.4. The blue-violet color of Congo red at pH = 3.0...5.2 turns into red. To check the acidity of extracts (dialysates) and to approximately determine the pH of the medium, paper impregnated with a universal indicator can be used.
After a pronounced acidic reaction of extracts from biological material or dialysates has been established, these liquids are examined for the presence of anions of sulfuric, nitric, hydrochloric and other acids.
The detection of sulfate ions, chloride ions and ions of other acids in extracts (dialysates) is not yet evidence of poisoning with sulfuric, hydrochloric or other acid. This is explained by the fact that the anions of these acids can be in the body as an integral part of organs and tissues.
To prove poisoning with mineral acids, it is necessary to remove them from dialysates. In this case, only free acids are distilled off. Salts of these acids received in extracts from the objects under study are not distilled. Considering that sulfuric and nitric acids are distilled at relatively high temperatures, these acids are first converted into more volatile compounds, which easily turn into distillates during the distillation process.
§ 1. Sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid poisoning can be indicated by the appearance of the research objects. For example, persons who have taken concentrated sulfuric acid may experience damage to the tissues of their lips, tongue, esophagus, stomach, etc. Clothing exposed to sulfuric acid may be damaged. However, evidence of sulfuric acid poisoning is its detection in distillates obtained after the distillation of this acid from dialysates.
Isolation of sulfuric acid from biological material. The organs of the corpses to be examined are crushed, poured with water until a paste-like mass is obtained, which is left for 1-2 hours. The resulting extract is filtered, dialyzed, and then sulfuric acid is distilled from the dialysate.
During a chemical-toxicological study of sulfuric acid on clothing or other objects, this acid can be extracted with ethyl alcohol, in which this acid dissolves and its salts do not dissolve. For this purpose, the material under study is crushed and non-ethyl alcohol is added to it. After some time, the liquid is filtered from solid particles of the material being tested. The filtrate is evaporated to dryness in a water bath. Add 10 ml of water to the dry residue, boil for several minutes, and then cool the liquid to room temperature. Sulfuric acid is distilled from the resulting liquid and examined in the distillate.
Distillation of sulfuric acid. Copper filings are added to the dialysates and heated. In this case, sulfurous acid anhydride SO 2 is formed, which is distilled off and collected in a receiver containing a solution. When sulfuric acid anhydride reacts with water and iodine, sulfuric acid is formed:
The method for distilling sulfuric acid is as follows: dialysate and copper filings are added to the flask of a liquid distillation apparatus, consisting of a flask, a refrigerator with a stem and a receiver. The end of the stem is lowered into a receiver containing a solution. The flask is placed in an oil or sand bath and heated. If rapid discoloration of iodine occurs during distillation, then its solution is additionally added to the receiver in small portions. After the distillation of sulfuric acid is completed, 2-3 ml of diluted hydrochloric acid is added to the receiver and the liquid is heated until the iodine, which has not reacted with sulfuric acid sangide, completely disappears. The liberated otiod distillate is used for detection of non-sulfuric acid.
To detect sulfuric acid in the distillate, reactions with barium chloride, lead acetate and sodium rhodizonate are used.
Reaction with barium chloride. To 3-5 drops of distillate add 1-2 drops of 5% barium chloride solution. The appearance of a white precipitate of barium sulfate indicates the presence of sulfuric acid
lots in distillate. The resulting precipitate does not dissolve in nitric and hydrochloric acids, as well as alkalis.
Reaction with lead acetate. To a few drops of distillate add 2-3 drops of 3% lead acetate solution. In the presence of sulfuric acid, a white precipitate of lead sulfate precipitates, which is not soluble in nitric acid, but dissolves in caustic alkalis in a solution of ammonium acetate when heated:
Reaction with sodium rhodizonate is based on the fact that sodium rhodizonate and barium solyamide forms barium rhodizonate, which has a red color. The addition of sulfuric acid or sulfates to tubarium rhodizonate decomposes. In this case, a precipitate of barium sulfate is formed and the red color of rhodizonate disappears:
Executing the reaction. A drop of 1% barium chloride solution and a drop of freshly prepared 0.2% sodium rhodisonate solution are applied to the filter paper. In this case, the stain on the paper becomes red in color. Apply 1-2 drops of distillate to this stain. In the presence of sulfuric acid, the color of the stain disappears. This reaction is specific for sulphates and sulfuric acid.
The third great achievement of 13th century chemistry is the production mineral acids. The first mentions of sulfuric and nitric acids are found in a Byzantine manuscript of the 13th century.
Even in ancient times, it was noticed that when alum or vitriol is heated, “sour vapors” are released. However, the production of sulfuric acid was first mastered only at the end of the 13th century. Geber's books describe the experience of obtaining sulfuric and hydrochloric acids, as well as aqua regia.
Sulfuric acid was used for a long time only as a reagent in laboratories, and from the second half of the 18th century. it was used in craft practice - first for coloring substances, and then also for bleaching. In 1744, the Saxon mountain councilor Barth from Freiberg discovered the process of sulfonation of indigo and first used it for dyeing wool. In this regard, the demand for sulfuric acid has continuously increased and rational methods for its production have emerged. J. H. Bernhardt and H. I. Köhler organized several sulfuric acid factories, mainly in Saxony. These enterprises supplied sulfuric acid to Frankfurt, Bremen, Nuremberg, and also outside Germany. At the end of the 18th century. 30 sulfuric acid plants operated in the Ore Mountains alone. Almost simultaneously, similar factories appeared in Bohemia and the Harz. The largest enterprises producing sulfuric acid belonged to the manufacturer Johann David Stark from Pilsen. Stark, an experienced specialist in cotton fiber, first realized the importance of sulfuric acid as an auxiliary material in the bleaching of cotton.
The rapid development of textile factories during the era of the industrial revolution, carried out thanks to the creation of weaving and spinning machines, became possible only in connection with the use of new chemical effective methods for bleaching and dyeing fabrics. The first English sulfuric acid factory was created in Richmond (near London) by Dr. Ward in 1736. It produced about 200 liters of sulfuric acid per day in 50 glass vessels. Ten years later (in 1746), Roebuck and Garbet significantly improved this production: instead of glass cylinders, they began to use lead chambers. Fester reported that at some sulfuric acid plants there were up to 360 lead chambers in operation at that time. Only in Glasgow and Birmingham at the end of the 18th century. Eight such enterprises were already operating.
In 1750, Home of Edinburgh discovered that sulfuric acid could be used as a substitute for sour milk for acidification in the bleaching of linen and cotton. It was more profitable to use sulfuric acid than sour milk. Firstly, sulfuric acid was cheaper, and secondly, bleaching with sulfuric acid made it possible to reduce the duration of the process from 2-3 weeks to 12 hours.
Unlike sulfuric acid, nitric acid began to be used in craft practice much earlier. It was a valuable product widely used in precious metal metallurgy. In Venice, one of the largest cultural and scientific centers of the Renaissance, nitric acid was used back in the 15th century. to separate gold and silver. Soon other countries such as France, Germany and England followed suit. This became possible thanks to the fact that the greatest technologists of the Renaissance - Biringuccio, Agricola and Erker - described methods for producing nitric acid. According to this description, saltpeter along with alum or vitriol was placed in clay flasks, which were then placed in rows in a furnace and heated. “Sour” vapors were condensed in special receivers. A similar method for producing nitric acid was then often used in mining, metallurgy, and in the production of other chemical products by distillation. However, distillation plants were very expensive at that time, so until the 18th century. they were used for other purposes. In the 18th century There was a huge factory in Holland that produced approximately 20,000 pounds of nitric acid per year. Since 1788, nitric acid, along with other products, was produced in Bavaria (in the town of Marktredwitz) at a chemical factory founded by Fikencher.
The technology for producing nitric acid did not change significantly until the end of the 18th century. Retorts were made of glass and metal, often coated with enamel. From 24 to 40 retorts were placed into a special oven at once. Nitric acid was distinguished between the first, second and third degrees of strength. It was used for various purposes: isolating precious metals, for cochineal painting, for processing brass, in furriers, in the manufacture of hats, copper engraving, etc.
Until in the 16th century. Hydrochloric acid was discovered, and aqua regia was obtained by dissolving ammonia in nitric acid. With the help of nitric acid and aqua regia, it was possible to achieve a fairly high degree of extraction of noble metals from ores. Alchemists used this phenomenon as “proof” of transmutation. They explained the increase in the yield of noble metals by the fact that as a result of transmutation, a new substance supposedly appears - silver or gold. The “experimental philosophy” that emerged during the Renaissance also emphasized “strong vodka”; some chemical processes that were carried out using this compound confirmed atomistic ideas.
Libavius and Vasily Valentinus also mentioned hydrochloric acid. However, the first detailed description of the chemical processes for producing hydrochloric acid was left only by Glauber. Hydrochloric acid was obtained from table salt and vitriol. Although Glauber wrote about the potential for a variety of uses for hydrochloric acid (particularly as a food seasoning), there was little demand for it for a long time. It grew significantly only after chemists developed a technique for bleaching fabrics using chlorine. In addition, hydrochloric acid was used to obtain gelatin and glue from bones and to produce Prussian blue.
HClO, etc.) cannot be isolated in the form of individual compounds; they exist only in solution.
Based on their chemical composition, they distinguish between oxygen-free acids (HCl, H 2 S, HF, HCN) and oxygen-containing acids (oxo acids) (H 2 SO 4, H 3 PO 4). The composition of oxygen-free acids can be described by the formula: H n X, where X is a chemical element forming an acid (halogen, chalcogen) or an oxygen-free radical: for example, hydrobromic HBr, hydrocyanic HCN, hydroazidic acid HN 3 acids. In turn, all oxygen-containing acids have a composition that can be expressed by the formula: H n XO m, where X is the chemical element that forms the acid.
The hydrogen atoms in oxygen-containing acids are most often bonded to the oxygen by a polar covalent bond. Acids are known with several (usually two) tautomeric or isomeric forms, which differ in the position of the hydrogen atom:
Certain classes of inorganic acids form compounds in which the atoms of the acid-forming element form molecular homo- and heterogeneous chain structures. Isopolyacids are acids in which the atoms of the acid-forming element are connected through an oxygen atom (oxygen bridge). Examples are polysulfur acids H 2 S 2 O 7 and H 2 S 3 O 10 and polychromic acids H 2 Cr 2 O 7 and H 2 Cr 3 O 10 . Acids with several atoms of different acid-forming elements connected through an oxygen atom are called heteropolyacids. There are acids whose molecular structure is formed by a chain of identical acid-forming atoms, for example in polythionic acids H 2 S n O 6 or in sulfans H 2 S n, where n≥2.
texvc not found; See math/README for setup help.): \mathsf(HA + H_2O \rightleftarrows H_3O^+ + A^-)
Unable to parse expression (Executable file texvc not found; See math/README for setup help.): \mathsf(HA \rightarrow H^+ + A^-)(simplified notation) | Acid | Meaning (m–n) |
K a |
|---|---|---|
| HClO | 0 | 10 −8 |
| H3AsO3 | 0 | 10 −10 |
| H 2 SO 3 | 1 | 10 −2 |
| N 3 PO 4 | 1 | 10 −2 |
| HNO3 | 2 | 10 1 |
| H2SO4 | 2 | 10 3 |
| HClO4 | 3 | 10 10 |
This pattern is due to increased polarization of the H-O bond due to a shift in the electron density from the bond to the electronegative oxygen atom along mobile π-bonds E=O and delocalization of the electron density in the anion.
Inorganic acids have properties common to all acids, including: coloring of indicators, dissolution of active metals with the release of hydrogen (except HNO 3), the ability to react with bases and basic oxides to form salts, for example:
Unable to parse expression (Executable filetexvc not found; See math/README for setup help.): \mathsf(2HCl + Mg \rightarrow MgCl_2 + H_2\uparrow)
Unable to parse expression (Executable file texvc not found; See math/README for setup help.): \mathsf(HNO_3 + NaOH \rightarrow NaNO_3 + H_2O)
Unable to parse expression (Executable file texvc not found; See math/README for setup help.): \mathsf(2HCl + CaO \rightarrow CaCl_2 + H_2O)
The number of hydrogen atoms that are split off from an acid molecule and can be replaced by a metal to form a salt is called the basicity of the acid. Acids can be divided into one-, two- and three-basic. Acids with higher basicity are unknown.
Many inorganic acids are monobasic: hydrohalic acids HHal, nitric HNO 3, chloric HClO 4, hydrogen thiocyanate HSCN, etc. Sulfuric acid H 2 SO 4, chromic H 2 CrO 4, hydrogen sulfide H 2 S are examples of dibasic acids, etc.
Polybasic acids dissociate stepwise, each step has its own acidity constant, and each subsequent K a is always less than the previous one by approximately five orders of magnitude. The dissociation equations for tribasic orthophosphoric acid are shown below:
Unable to parse expression (Executable filetexvc not found; See math/README for setup help.): \mathsf(H_3PO_4 \rightleftarrows H^+ + H_2PO_4^- \ \ K_(a1) = 7\cdot 10^(-3))
Unable to parse expression (Executable file texvc not found; See math/README for setup help.): \mathsf(H_2PO_4^- \rightleftarrows H^+ + HPO_4^(2-) \ \ K_(a2) = 6\cdot 10^(-8))
Unable to parse expression (Executable file texvc not found; See math/README for setup help.: \mathsf(HPO_4^(2-) \rightleftarrows H^+ + PO_4^(3-) \ \ K_(a3) = 1\cdot 10^(-12))
Basicity determines the number of rows of medium and acid salts - acid derivatives.
Only hydrogen atoms that are part of the hydroxy groups -OH are capable of substitution, therefore, for example, orthophosphoric acid H 3 PO 4 forms medium salts - phosphates of the form Na 3 PO 4, and two series of acidic ones - hydrophosphates Na 2 HPO 4 and dihydrogen phosphates NaH 2 PO 4 . Whereas, phosphorous acid H 2 (HPO 3) has only two series - phosphites and hydrophosphites, and hypophosphorous acid H (H 2 PO 2) - only a series of middle salts - hypophosphites.
General methods for producing acids
There are many methods for producing acids, including general ones, among which in industrial and laboratory practice the following can be distinguished:
- Interaction of acid oxides (anhydrides) with water, for example:
texvc not found; See math/README for setup help.): \mathsf(P_2O_5 + 3H_2O \rightarrow 2H_3PO_4)
Unable to parse expression (Executable file texvc not found; See math/README for setup help.): \mathsf(2CrO_3 + H_2O \rightarrow H_2Cr_2O_7)
- Displacement of a more volatile acid from its salt by a less volatile acid, for example:
texvc not found; See math/README for setup help.): \mathsf(CaF_2 + H_2SO_4 \rightarrow CaSO_4 + 2HF\uparrow)
Unable to parse expression (Executable file texvc not found; See math/README for setup help.): \mathsf(KNO_3 + H_2SO_4 \rightarrow KHSO_4 + HNO_3\uparrow)
- Hydrolysis of halides or salts, for example:
texvc not found; See math/README for setup help.): \mathsf(PCl_5 + 4H_2O \rightarrow H_3PO_4 + 5HCl)
Unable to parse expression (Executable file texvc not found; See math/README for setup help.): \mathsf(Al_2Se_3 + 6H_2O \rightarrow 2Al(OH)_3 + 3H_2Se)
- Synthesis of oxygen-free acids from simple substances
texvc not found; See math/README for setup help.): \mathsf(H_2 + Cl_2 \rightarrow 2HCl)
- Ion exchange reactions on the surface of ion exchange resins: chemisorption of cations of dissolved salts and their replacement with H +.
Application
Mineral acids are widely used in metal and woodworking, textiles, paint and varnish, oil and gas and other industries and in scientific research. The substances produced in the largest volumes include sulfuric, nitric, phosphoric, and hydrochloric acids. The total annual production of these acids in the world amounts to hundreds of millions of tons per year.
In metalworking, they are often used for pickling iron and steel and as cleaning agents before welding, plating, painting or galvanizing.
Sulfuric acid, aptly named by D. I. Mendeleev “ bread industry", used in the production of mineral fertilizers, for the production of other mineral acids and salts, in the production of chemical fibers, dyes, smoke-forming and explosive substances, in the oil, metalworking, textile, leather, food and other industries, in industrial organic synthesis, etc. . P.
Hydrochloric acid is used for acid treatment, purification of tin and tantalum ores, for the production of molasses from starch, for descaling from boilers and heat exchange equipment of thermal power plants. It is also used as a tanning agent in the leather industry.
Nitric acid is used in the production of ammonium nitrate, which is used as a fertilizer and in the production of explosives. In addition, it is used in organic synthesis processes, metallurgy, ore flotation and for the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel.
Orthophosphoric acid is widely used in the production of mineral fertilizers. It is used in soldering as a flux (on oxidized copper, on ferrous metal, on stainless steel). Included in corrosion inhibitors. It is also used in the composition of freons in industrial freezing units as a binder.
Peroxoacids, oxygen-containing acids of chlorine, manganese, and chromium are used as strong oxidizing agents.
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Literature
- Nekrasov B.V., Fundamentals of General Chemistry, 3rd ed., vol. 1-2. M., 1973;
- Campbell J., Modern general chemistry, trans. from English, vol. 1-3, M., 1975;
- Bell R., Proton in Chemistry, trans. from English, M., 1977;
- Huynh D., Inorganic chemistry, trans. from English, M., 1987.
see also
Notes
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An excerpt characterizing inorganic acids
The same little man, Hugues de Arcy, stopped in front of the Cathars. Impatiently marking time, apparently wanting to finish as quickly as possible, he began the selection in a hoarse, cracked voice...- What is your name?
“Esclarmonde de Pereil,” came the answer.
- Hugues de Arcy, acting on behalf of the King of France. You are accused of heresy in Qatar. You know, in accordance with our agreement, which you accepted 15 days ago, in order to be free and save your life, you must renounce your faith and sincerely swear allegiance to the faith of the Roman Catholic Church. You must say: “I renounce my religion and accept the Catholic religion!”
“I believe in my religion and will never renounce it...” was the firm answer.
- Throw her into the fire! – the little man shouted contentedly.
OK it's all over Now. Her fragile and short life came to its terrible end. Two people grabbed her and threw her onto a wooden tower, on which a gloomy, emotionless “performer” was waiting, holding thick ropes in his hands. There was a fire burning there... Esclarmonde was seriously hurt, but then she smiled bitterly to herself - very soon she would have much more pain...
- What is your name? – Arcee’s survey continued.
- Corba de Pereil...
A short moment later, her poor mother was thrown just as roughly next to her.
So, one after another, the Cathars passed the “selection”, and the number of those sentenced kept increasing... All of them could save their lives. All you had to do was lie and renounce what you believed. But no one agreed to pay such a price...
The flames of the fire cracked and hissed - the damp wood did not want to burn at full power. But the wind grew stronger and from time to time brought burning tongues of fire to one of the condemned. The clothes on the unfortunate man flared up, turning the person into a burning torch... Screams were heard - apparently, not everyone could endure such pain.
Esclarmonde was trembling from cold and fear... No matter how brave she was, the sight of her burning friends gave her a real shock... She was completely exhausted and unhappy. She really wanted to call someone for help... But she knew for sure that no one would help or come.
Little Vidomir appeared before my eyes. She will never see him grow... will never know if his life will be happy. She was a mother who hugged her child just once, for a moment... And she would never give birth to Svetozar’s other children, because her life was ending right now, on this bonfire... next to others.
Esclarmonde took a deep breath, ignoring the freezing cold. What a pity that there was no sun!.. She loved to bask under its gentle rays!.. But that day the sky was gloomy, gray and heavy. It said goodbye to them...
Somehow holding back the bitter tears that were ready to flow, Esclarmonde raised her head high. She will never show how bad she really felt!.. No way!!! She'll endure it somehow. The wait wasn't that long...
The mother was nearby. And just about ready to burst into flames...
Father stood like a stone statue, looking at both of them, and there was not a single drop of blood in his frozen face... It seemed as if life had left him, rushing away to where they would very soon go too.
A heart-rending scream was heard nearby - it was my mother who burst into flames...
- Korba! Korba, forgive me!!! – it was the father who shouted.
Suddenly Esclarmonde felt a gentle, affectionate touch... She knew that it was the Light of her Dawn. Svetozar... It was he who extended his hand from afar to say the last “goodbye”... To say that he was with her, that he knew how scared and painful she would be... He asked her to be strong...
A wild, sharp pain slashed through the body - here it is! It's here!!! A burning, roaring flame touched his face. Her hair flared up... A second later her body was in full flame... A sweet, bright girl, almost a child, accepted her death in silence. For some time she still heard her father screaming wildly, calling her name. Then everything disappeared... Her pure soul went into a kind and correct world. Without giving up and without breaking. Exactly the way she wanted.
Suddenly, completely out of place, singing was heard... It was the clergy present at the execution who began to sing in order to drown out the screams of the burning “convicts.” With voices hoarse from the cold, they sang psalms about the forgiveness and kindness of the Lord...
Finally, evening came at the walls of Montsegur.
The terrible fire was burning out, sometimes still flaring up in the wind as dying red coals. During the day the wind had strengthened and was now raging at full speed, carrying black clouds of soot and burning throughout the valley, seasoned with the sweetish smell of burnt human flesh...
At the funeral pyre, bumping into those nearby, a strange, detached man wandered lostly... From time to time, screaming out someone's name, he suddenly grabbed his head and began to sob loudly, heartbreakingly. The crowd surrounding him parted, respecting the grief of others. And the man again walked slowly, not seeing or noticing anything... He was gray-haired, hunched over and tired. Sharp gusts of wind blew his long gray hair, tore his thin dark clothes from his body... For a moment the man turned around and - oh, gods!.. He was still very young!!! His haggard, thin face was breathing with pain... And his wide-open gray eyes looked in surprise, seemingly not understanding where and why he was. Suddenly the man screamed wildly and... threw himself straight into the fire!.. Or rather, into what was left of him... People standing nearby tried to grab his hand, but did not have time. The man fell prostrate on the dying red coals, clutching something colored to his chest...
And he didn't breathe.
Finally, having somehow dragged him away from the fire, those around him saw what he was holding, tightly clutched in his thin, frozen fist... It was a bright hair ribbon, the kind that young Occitan brides wore before their wedding... Which meant - everything just a few hours ago he was still a happy young groom...
The wind still disturbed his long hair that had turned gray during the day, quietly playing in the burnt strands... But the man no longer felt or heard anything. Having found his beloved again, he walked with her hand in hand along the sparkling starry road of Qatar, meeting their new stellar future... He was again very happy.
Still wandering around the dying fire, people with faces frozen in grief were looking for the remains of their relatives and friends... Also, not feeling the piercing wind and cold, they rolled out the burnt bones of their sons, daughters, sisters and brothers, wives and husbands from the ashes. ... Or even just friends... From time to time, someone would cry and pick up a ring blackened in the fire... a half-burnt shoe... and even the head of a doll, which, having rolled to the side, did not have time to burn completely...
The same little man, Hugues de Arcy, was very pleased. It was finally over - the Qatari heretics were dead. Now he could safely go home. Shouting to the frozen knight on guard to bring his horse, Arcee turned to the warriors sitting by the fire to give them his final orders. His mood was joyful and upbeat - the mission, which had lasted for many months, had finally come to a “happy” end... His duty was fulfilled. And he could honestly be proud of himself. A short moment later, the rapid clatter of horse hooves could be heard in the distance - the seneschal of the city of Carcassonne was hurrying home, where a hearty hot dinner and a warm fireplace awaited him to warm his frozen, road-weary body.
On the high mountain of Montsegur, the loud and sorrowful crying of eagles could be heard - they were seeing off their faithful friends and owners on their last journey... The eagles were crying very loudly... In the village of Montsegur, people timidly closed their doors. The cry of the eagles echoed throughout the valley. They were mourning...
The terrible end of the wonderful empire of Qatar - the empire of Light and Love, Goodness and Knowledge - has come to its end...
Somewhere in the depths of the Occitan mountains there were still fugitive Cathars. They hid with their families in the Lombriv and Ornolak caves, unable to decide what to do next... Having lost the last Perfects, they felt like children who no longer had support.
They were persecuted.
They were game, for the capture of which large rewards were given.
And yet, the Cathars did not give up yet... Having moved to the caves, they felt at home there. They knew every turn there, every crevice, so it was almost impossible to track them. Although the servants of the king and the church tried their best, hoping for the promised rewards. They wandered around the caves, not knowing exactly where they should look. They got lost and died... And some of the lost ones went crazy, unable to find their way back to the open and familiar sunny world...
The pursuers were especially afraid of the Sakani cave - it ended in six separate passages, zigzags leading straight down. Nobody knew the real depth of these moves. There were legends that one of those passages led straight to the underground city of the Gods, into which not a single person dared to descend.
After waiting a little, Dad became furious. The Cathars did not want to disappear!.. This small group of exhausted and incomprehensible people did not give up!.. Despite the losses, despite the hardships, despite everything - they still LIVED. And Dad was afraid of them... He didn’t understand them. What motivated these strange, proud, unapproachable people?! Why didn’t they give up, seeing that they had no chance of salvation?.. Dad wanted them to disappear. So that not a single damned Qatar remains on earth!.. Unable to think of anything better, he ordered hordes of dogs to be sent to the caves...
The knights came to life. Now everything seemed simple and easy - they didn’t have to come up with plans to catch the “infidels.” They went into the caves “armed” with dozens of trained hunting dogs, which were supposed to lead them to the very heart of the refuge of the Qatari fugitives. Everything was simple. All that was left was to wait a little. Compared to the siege of Montsegur, this was a trifle...
The caves welcomed Qatar, opening their dark, damp arms for them... The life of the fugitives became difficult and lonely. Rather, it looked like survival... Although there were still very, very many people willing to help the fugitives. In the small towns of Occitania, such as the principality of de Foix, Castellum de Verdunum and others, the Cathars still lived under the cover of local lords. Only now they no longer gathered openly, trying to be more careful, because the Pope’s bloodhounds did not agree to calm down, wanting at all costs to exterminate this Occitan “heresy” that was hiding throughout the country...
“Be diligent in exterminating heresy by any means! God will inspire you! – the Pope’s call to the crusaders sounded. And the church messengers really tried...
- Tell me, Sever, of those who went into the caves, did anyone live to see the day when it was possible to go to the surface without fear? Did anyone manage to save their life?
– Unfortunately, no, Isidora. The Montsegur Cathars did not survive... Although, as I just told you, there were other Cathars who existed in Occitania for quite a long time. Only a century later the last Qatar was destroyed there. But their life was completely different, much more secretive and dangerous. People frightened by the Inquisition betrayed them, wanting to save their lives. Therefore, some of the remaining Katar moved to the caves. Someone settled in the forests. But that was later, and they were much more prepared for such a life. Those whose relatives and friends died in Montsegur did not want to live long with their pain... Deeply grieving for the dead, tired of hatred and persecution, they finally decided to reunite with them in that other, much kinder and purer life . There were about five hundred of them, including several old people and children. And with them were four Perfect Ones, who came to the rescue from a neighboring town.
On the night of their voluntary “departure” from the unjust and evil material world, all the Cathars went outside to breathe the wonderful spring air for the last time, to once again look at the familiar radiance of the distant stars they loved so much... where their tired, a tormented Qatari soul.
The night was gentle, quiet and warm. The earth was fragrant with the smells of acacias, blossoming cherries and thyme... People inhaled the intoxicating aroma, experiencing real childhood pleasure!.. For almost three long months they did not see the clear night sky, did not breathe real air. After all, in spite of everything, no matter what happened on it, it was their land!.. Their native and beloved Occitania. Only now it was filled with hordes of the Devil, from which there was no escape.
Without saying a word, the Cathars turned to Montsegur. They wanted to take one last look at their HOME. To the Temple of the Sun, sacred to each of them. A strange, long procession of thin, emaciated people unexpectedly easily ascended to the highest of the Qatari castles. It was as if nature itself was helping them!.. Or perhaps these were the souls of those with whom they were going to meet very soon?
At the foot of Montsegur a small part of the Crusader army was located. Apparently, the holy fathers were still afraid that the crazy Cathars might return. And they were guarding... The sad column passed like quiet ghosts next to the sleeping guards - no one even moved...
– They used “blackout”, right? – I asked in surprise. – Did all the Cathars know how to do this?..
- No, Isidora. “You forgot that the Perfect Ones were with them,” answered the North and calmly continued.
Having reached the top, the people stopped. In the light of the moon, the ruins of Montsegur looked ominous and unusual. It was as if every stone, soaked in the blood and pain of the dead Qatar, called for revenge on those who had come again... And although there was dead silence around, it seemed to people that they could still hear the dying cries of their relatives and friends, burning in the flames of the terrifying “cleansing” papal bonfire . Montsegur towered over them, menacing and... unnecessary to anyone, like a wounded animal left to die alone...
The walls of the castle still remembered Svetodar and Magdalena, the children's laughter of Beloyar and golden-haired Vesta... The castle remembered the wonderful years of Qatar, filled with joy and love. I remembered the kind and bright people who came here under his protection. Now this was no longer the case. The walls stood bare and alien, as if Kathar and the big, kind soul of Montsegur had flown away along with the souls of those burned...
The Cathars looked at the familiar stars - from here they seemed so big and close!.. And they knew that very soon these stars would become their new Home. And the stars looked down on their lost children and smiled tenderly, preparing to receive their lonely souls.
The next morning, all the Cathars gathered in a huge, low cave, which was located directly above their beloved - “cathedral”... There, once upon a time, Golden Maria taught KNOWLEDGE... New Perfects gathered there... There the Light and Good World Qatar.
And now, when they returned here only as “shards” of this wonderful world, they wanted to be closer to the past, which was no longer possible to return... The Perfect Ones quietly gave Purification (consolementum) to each of those present, affectionately laying their magic hands on their tired ones , drooping heads. Until all those “leaving” were finally ready.
In complete silence, people took turns lying down directly on the stone floor, crossing their thin arms over their chests, and completely calmly closing their eyes, as if they were just getting ready for bed... Mothers hugged their children to themselves, not wanting to part with them. A moment later, the entire huge hall turned into a quiet tomb of five hundred good people who had fallen asleep forever... Qatar. Faithful and Bright followers of Radomir and Magdalena.
Their souls flew away together to where their proud, brave “brothers” were waiting. Where the world was gentle and kind. Where you no longer had to be afraid that, by someone’s evil, bloodthirsty will, your throat would be cut or simply thrown into the “cleansing” papal fire.
A sharp pain squeezed my heart... Tears flowed in hot streams down my cheeks, but I didn’t even notice them. Bright, beautiful and pure people passed away... of their own free will. They left so as not to surrender to the killers. To leave the way they wanted. So as not to drag out a miserable, wandering life in his own proud and native land - Occitania.
– Why did they do this, Sever? Why didn't they fight?..
– We fought – with what, Isidora? Their battle was completely lost. They simply chose HOW they wanted to leave.
– But they committed suicide!.. Isn’t this punishable by karma? Didn’t this make them suffer the same way there, in that other world?
– No, Isidora... They simply “left”, removing their souls from the physical body. And this is the most natural process. They did not use violence. They just "gone away."
With deep sadness I looked at this terrible tomb, in the cold, perfect silence of which the falling drops rang from time to time. It was nature that began to slowly create its eternal shroud - a tribute to the dead... So, over the years, drop by drop, each body will gradually turn into a stone tomb, not allowing anyone to mock the dead...
To the question where mineral acids are used asked by the author Galina Pavlygo-Peshko the best answer is Mineral acids are used in various industries: metal and woodworking, textiles, paint and varnish, oil and gas, etc. In metalworking, they are often used as cleaning agents before welding, metallization or painting. Sulfamic acid, sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid are used in electroplating.
Hydrochloric, sulfuric, perchloric and sulfamic acids are widely used in industry. Hydrochloric acid or an aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride is used for acid treatment, purification of tin and tantalum ores, for the production of molasses from starch, for descaling boilers and heat exchange equipment. It is also used as a tanning agent in the leather industry. Sulfuric acid is used in the production of parchment paper, as well as in the processes of petroleum refining, vegetable oil refining, carbonization of woolen fabrics, extraction of uranium from uranite, and in the pickling process of iron and steel. Sulfuric and perchloric acids are used in the production of explosives. Sulfamic acid is used as a fire retardant in the woodworking and textile industries, and as a bleaching and bactericidal agent in the production of pulp and paper.
Nitric acid is used in the production of ammonium nitrate, which is used as a fertilizer and in the production of explosives. In addition, it is used in organic synthesis processes, metallurgy, ore flotation and for the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel.
Answer from Neuropathologist[newbie]
Mineral acids are inorganic substances that have a complex of physical and chemical properties inherent in acids. Mineral acids are used in various industries: metal and woodworking, textiles, paint and varnish, oil and gas, etc. In metalworking, they are often used as cleaning agents before welding, metallization or painting. Hydrochloric acid or an aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride is used for acid treatment, purification of tin and tantalum ores, for the production of molasses from starch, for descaling boilers and heat exchange equipment. It is also used as a tanning agent in the leather industry. Sulfuric acid is used in the production of parchment paper, as well as in the processes of petroleum refining, vegetable oil refining, carbonization of woolen fabrics, extraction of uranium from uranite, and in the pickling process of iron and steel. Sulfuric and perchloric acids are used in the production of explosives. Sulfamic acid is used as a fire retardant in the woodworking and textile industries, and as a bleaching and bactericidal agent in the production of pulp and paper. Nitric acid is used in the production of ammonium nitrate, which is used as a fertilizer and in the production of explosives. In addition, it is used in organic synthesis processes, metallurgy, ore flotation and for the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel.
