Home Chassis A brief history of the development of anatomy and physiology. The formation of physiology as a science. History of the development of physiology The development of human physiology began with the works

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A brief history of the development of anatomy and physiology. The formation of physiology as a science. History of the development of physiology The development of human physiology began with the works

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1. The emergence of physiology

Physiology arose in ancient times from the needs of medicine, since in order to prevent diseases and treat people it was necessary to know the structure of the body and the functions of organs. Therefore, doctors of ancient Greece and Rome studied anatomy and physiology. The physiological knowledge of ancient scientists was based mainly on guesswork, vivisections were carried out very rarely and therefore many conclusions about the functions of the body were inaccurate or erroneous.

The few physiological facts obtained by scientists of the ancient world were deliberately hushed up until the 14th and 15th centuries. during the times of feudalism, and the idealistic speculative assumptions of the ancients about the existence of a soul independent of the body were canonized in all religious beliefs and established as immutable truths. In the Middle Ages, religious dogmas were forcibly imposed, and scientific knowledge was brutally eradicated. The Catholic Church forbade dissecting corpses, without which accurate knowledge of the structure of the body is impossible. In the Middle Ages, religion led to stagnation of experimental science and caused great harm to its development.

The revival of anatomy and physiology began with the collapse of feudal society. A. Vesalius (1514-1564) was not only the founder of modern human anatomy, but also carried out vivisections on dogs, which made it possible to establish important facts. M. Servetus (1509 or 1511 - 1553) studied in detail the pulmonary circulation, changes in blood in the lungs and suggested the existence of capillaries in them. For his bold scientific views directed against religion, M. Servetus was burned by the clergy. Anatomist Fabric (1537-1619) discovered valves in the veins.

The English physician William Harvey (1578 --1657) discovered the large circle of blood circulation in acute experiments on animals and through observations in humans. He based his conclusions on the results of animal vivisection, therefore his scientific work is physiological and is considered the beginning of modern experimental physiology.

In the first half of the 17th century. Natural scientist and philosopher Rene Descartes (1596 --1650), conducting vivisections on animals and observations on humans, studied the role of the heart and digestion. His main discovery in physiology is the scheme of an unconditioned reflex based on the study of the act of blinking when touching the cornea.

Descartes' idea of the reflex was further developed in the works of the Czech scientist I. Prohaska (1749 - 1820).

An important contribution to physiology was made by the Italian physiologist and physicist JI. Galvani (1737-1798) - one of the founders of the theory of electricity. He discovered the occurrence of electric current in the nerves and muscles of a frog when they were simultaneously in contact with two dissimilar metals (iron and copper), which caused muscle contraction, and then proved the existence of electricity in the nerves. The Italian physicist and physiologist A. Volta (1745 - 1827) explained that when nerves and muscles come into contact with two dissimilar metals at the same time, an external electric current acts, and not its own electricity. He showed that electric current excites the sense organs, nerves and muscles. Thus, Galvani and Volta became the founders of electrophysiology, which was further developed in the works of the German physiologist Dubois-Reymond (1818 - 1896) and others.

Of great importance for physiology were the biochemical studies of digestive enzymes and the role of enzymes in protein synthesis carried out by A. Ya. Danilevsky (1838 - 1923).

2. Progress of physiology of the 19th century.

Progress of physiology in the 19th century. was based on the successes of physics and chemistry applied to the study of the functions of the body and its chemical composition and combined with vivisection. This direction has received great development.

C. Bell (1774-1842) and F. Magendie (1783 - 1855) proved that centripetal (sensitive) and centrifugal nerve fibers exist separately. C. Bell discovered muscle sensitivity and argued for the existence of a nerve, reflex ring between the brain and skeletal muscle.

F. Magendie proved the influence of the nervous system on the regulation of metabolism in organs and tissues - the trophic function of the nervous system. Magendie's student Claude Bernard (1813 -- 1878) made many important physiological discoveries: he showed the digestive importance of saliva and pancreatic juice, discovered the synthesis of carbohydrates in the liver and its role in maintaining blood sugar levels, the role of the nervous system in carbohydrate metabolism and in the regulation of lumen blood vessels, the functions of many nerves were discovered, blood pressure, blood gases, electrical currents of nerves and muscles and many other issues were studied.

K. Bernard believed that most of the most important functions of the body are regulated by the nervous system.

J. Müller (1801 - 1858) and his school also made a significant contribution to physiology in the last century. He authored numerous studies on anatomy, comparative anatomy, histology, embryology, physiology of the sense organs, vocal apparatus and reflexes. His student G. Helmholtz (1821 --1894) made important discoveries in the field of physics, physiology of vision and hearing, nervous and muscular systems.

For the development of modern physiology, research on the nature of the nervous process (A. Hodgkin, L. Huxley, etc.), on the patterns of functioning of the nervous system (C. Sherrington, R. Magnus, D. Eccles, etc.) and sensory organs ( R. Granit), about active substances involved in the transmission of the nervous process (G. Dale, D. Nachmanson, M. Bakk, etc.),

about the functions of the brain stem (G. Magun, G. Moruzzi, etc.), the brain (Yu. Konorsky), the cardiovascular system (E. Starling, K. Wiggers, K. Geymans, etc.), about digestion (V M. Bayliss, A. Ivey, etc.), kidney activity (A. Keshni, A. Richards, etc.).

Russian physiological school. In Russia, physiology originated in the 18th century. Physiological experiments were carried out

F. Zuev (1754--1794), A. M. Filomafitsky (1807-- 1849), etc. The first Russian textbook of physiology was written by D. M. V ellansky (1773 - 1847). At first, the physiology of respiration, blood and circulation, and movement were studied, and then the main direction became the study of the functions of different parts of the nervous system (A. N. Orlovsky, 1821 - 1856; A. A. Sokolovsky, 1822 - 1891, etc.).

3. Development of domestic physiology

The founder of the Russian school of physiology was I.M. Sechenov (1829 - 1905). In 1862, he discovered inhibition in nerve centers, and in 1868, the summation of excitation in them. He was one of the first to conduct electrophysiological studies of the nervous system. The work of I.M. Sechenov “Reflexes of the Brain” sets out the main idea of the reflex theory.

The reflex theory of I.M. Sechenov was developed in the works of I.P. Pavlov (1849 - 1936), as well as his direct students - N. E. Vvedensky (1852 - 1922), A. F. Samoilov (1867-1930), etc.

Outstanding discoveries in the physiology of the nervous system were made by teachers I. P. Pavlova -I. F. Tsion (1842 - 1912) and F. V. Ovsyannikov (1827 - 1906).

I. F. Zion, together with K. Ludwig, discovered the centripetal nerve, which causes the heart to slow down and the blood vessels to dilate. He discovered nerves that speed up the heart; vasoconstrictor effect of the celiac nerve; finally proved that sympathetic nerve fibers exit the spinal cord along the anterior roots, and for the first time pointed out the relationship between excitation and inhibition in the nervous system. He formulated the hypothesis of inhibition as the interference of two colliding waves of excitation.

F.V. Ovsyannikov studied the regulation of blood circulation by the central nervous system.

The first works of I. P. Pavlov were also devoted to the regulation of the work of the heart and blood circulation by the nervous system and the study of the trophic function of the nervous system, and then I. P. Pavlov and his students for the first time studied in detail the role of the nervous system in the work of the digestive glands. Developing I.M. Sechenov’s idea about brain reflexes, I.P. Pavlov discovered conditioned reflexes. The school of I. P. Pavlov revealed the basic physiological patterns of the work of the brain as an organ that ensures that the functions of the body correspond to the changing conditions of its existence.

I.P. Pavlov proceeded from the leading role of the nervous system in the interaction of the entire animal organism with the external environment and in the regulation of the activity of all its organs. He experimentally developed the principle of nervism, which consists of studying the influence of the nervous system on all functions of the body. The school of I.P. Pavlov occupies a leading place in Russian physiology.

N. E. Vvedensky created the theory of the unity of excitation and inhibition, their mutual transitions, and carried out important electrophysiological work on the study of the functions of nerves and muscles. His student A. A. Ukhtomsky (1875 - 1942) substantiated the principle of operation of nerve centers - the theory of dominance, which is a further development of the concepts of I. P. Pavlov and N. E. Vvedensky about the relationships of nerve centers, and also created the idea of mastering nervous system rhythm of stimulation. A. F. Samoilov (1867 --1930) made a great contribution to electrophysiology and successfully developed the theory of chemical transmitters of the nervous process.

In studying the functions of animal organisms, I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov and their students were guided by the ideas of Charles Darwin. Russian physiology is characterized by the study of functions in evolution, in their phylo- and ontogenetic development. I. G. Pavlov’s student L. A. Orbeli (1882--1958) created modern Russian evolutionary physiology, deeply studied the role of the autonomic nervous system in the activity of the brain, sensory organs and skeletal muscles.

V. M. Bekhterev (1857 - 1927) developed the theory of conditioned reflexes in the pathology of the human nervous system and in psychiatry and deeply studied the structure and functions of the nervous system. Using the method of conditioned (combinative) reflexes on humans and animals and operations on animals, he studied the influence of internal organs on the activity of the brain and the regulation of the work of internal organs by the brain.

In the study of the influence of the brain on internal organs, the first important studies belonged to V. Ya. Danilevsky (1852-1939). He was one of the first to study electrical phenomena in the brain.

Soviet physiologists and followers of the schools of Sechenov, Vvedensky and Pavlov, using modern research methods, successfully develop human physiology. The progress in labor physiology, aviation and space, and especially age-related physiology of children is especially great, since modern methods of studying functions make it possible to study the physiological processes of people without harm to health.

Criticism of vitalism and mechanistic materialism in physiology based on the philosophy of dialectical materialism. Living organisms consist of the same elements as inanimate nature. Highly organized chemical compounds of the body - complex protein bodies associated with fatty and carbohydrate * compounds, have new qualities that inanimate nature does not have. The main quality of living matter is metabolism, which determines the constant self-renewal of the body and all its physiological functions. Life and death are interconnected, since in living organisms decay and destruction of cells and tissues, down to their constituent elements, continuously occur. From these elements and from elements of inanimate nature entering the body from outside, living structures are again created.

physiology Reflex Sechenov

4. Development of modern physiology

Modern science has studied the structure of many proteins, and some compounds of protein nature have been synthesized, for example adrenocorticotropic hormone, oxytocin, vasopressin, insulin.

The most important feature of living structures is their selective attitude towards substances coming from outside. Only certain substances penetrate from the external environment into the body and pass through the cytoplasmic membranes into the body: for example, the blood of a given organism is absorbed in the digestive canal contrary to the physicochemical laws of inanimate nature; through the membranes of living cells, consisting of proteins and fatty substances, sodium ions are pushed out, and potassium ions are forced in, etc.

Consequently, the qualitative differences in the life process are not supernatural, lying outside of nature and inaccessible to study, as is asserted by the reactionary idealistic trend in biology - vitalism. Vitalists deny the emergence of life from inanimate nature. They mistakenly believe that life is eternal and is regulated by immaterial factors (“vital force”, “entelechy”, “vital spirit”, “soul”, etc.), that it is unknowable.

Physiology studies the properties of a living organism that distinguish it from inanimate nature, therefore it is impossible to identify the physiological laws of life with the physical and chemical laws of dead nature, since this destroys the fundamental, qualitative difference between living and inanimate.

This reduction of all life processes to processes of inanimate nature is characteristic of mechanistic materialism. Mechanistic materialists deny the qualitative uniqueness of living organisms at different stages of development and the historical expediency of their behavior, identify the laws of behavior and thinking of people and animals, and deny the differences in the metabolism of people and animals.

Modern mechanistic materialists identify the functions of the nervous system with the operating principle of electronic computers - algorithms (rigid programs that provide for the alternation of a number of specific actions).

At the same time, life processes are based not only on specific, but also general physical and chemical laws.

Since mechanistic materialism is not able to explain the qualitative differences in living things, it is combined with idealism. Only dialectical materialism allows us to understand the essence of life, revealing the history of its origin and development.

5. Development of methods for studying physiology. Innovative research instruments

Physiological discoveries and development of physiological ideas in modern times. The successes of modern physiology are based on the use of methods of biophysics and biochemistry.

Thin and extremely precise electronic devices make it possible to study the functions of individual cells and even individual cellular structures. For example, the microelectrode technique directly examines the vital activity of individual nerve cells, muscle fibers, and retinal receptors. This is achieved by recording electrical phenomena (biological potentials) that arise during the process of metabolism in individual cells and their components.

To remove biopotentials, two types of microelectrodes are used: liquid (capillary) and metal. Liquid microelectrodes are better than metal ones, as they eliminate the possibility of polarization. For extracellular recording of biopotentials, electrodes with an outer diameter of 1-4 microns (micron, micrometer) are used, and for intracellular recording - less than 0.5 microns. Microelectrodes are inserted to a given depth into the tissue without disturbing its function and connected to amplifying and recording equipment. The accuracy of their introduction into the depths of an organ and cell, for example, into a nerve cell of the brain, is achieved by the stersotaxic apparatus. This apparatus is used in acute and chronic experiments. Microelectrodes are inserted through bushings fixed into holes made in the skull, or through punctures in the skull. The head is firmly fixed, special devices allow it to be rotated smoothly, and microscrews allow microelectrodes to be advanced deep into the brain with an accuracy of tenths of a micron. Several microelectrodes are attached to stereotaxic plates and inserted into different brain structures using micromanipulators.

For microphysiological studies, for example, to study the transfer of excitation from one nerve cell to another or from a nerve cell to a muscle cell, electron microscopes are used that magnify hundreds of thousands of times. An ordinary electron microscope magnifies 10,000-15,000 times and, in addition, has an optical magnification of the negative of 10 times. Electron microscopes have a resolution of several units or tens of A [angstrom is equal to 0.1 nm (nanometer) or 1 * 10-» m]. "

Histological chemistry, which studies the location in certain histological structures of their characteristic chemical compounds both at rest and during changes in physiological functions, is of essential importance for the development of modern physiology. Advances in histological chemistry became possible thanks to the use of an electron microscope and the finest methods of chemical research.

As a result of the use of electronic devices, the most important discoveries of modern physiology have been made. New facts have been obtained about the functions of different brain structures individually and in their relationships (reticular formation of the brain stem, limbic lobe, amygdaloid nuclei, diencephalon nuclei, hypothalamic or subthalamic region, etc.). The participation of these structures in the formation of conditioned reflexes and emotions has been studied. The role of hormones and chemical transmitters of the nervous process (mediators) in the activity of various parts of the central and peripheral nervous system, neuromuscular and other systems has been deeply studied. Their importance has been established in the formation of conditioned reflexes, in the formation of excitation, inhibition and propagation of the nervous process, in the restoration (regeneration) of the nervous system.

Thanks to the development of subtle biochemical methods, previously unknown mediators of the nervous system, formed under natural conditions, have been discovered. As a result of these discoveries, it became possible to specifically influence the psyche. Currently, in connection with the progress of mathematics and cybernetics, I.M. Sechenov’s idea is being realized that all manifestations of brain activity are found in muscle contractions, which can be subjected to mathematical analysis and expressed by a formula. I. P. Pavlov dreamed of the time “when mathematical analysis, based on natural science, will illuminate with majestic formulas of equations” the complex relationships of the body with the external environment and the physiological processes occurring in it.

Thus, the interaction and mutual connection of physiology with biology, mathematics, physics and chemistry is the main trend of its modern development.

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Observations of the vital functions of the body have been made since time immemorial. For 14-15 centuries BC. In ancient Egypt, when making mummies, people became well acquainted with the internal organs of a person. The tomb of the physician Pharaoh Unas depicts ancient medical instruments. In Ancient China, up to 400 diseases were surprisingly subtly distinguished by the pulse alone. In the IV-U century BC. e. there the doctrine of functionally important points of the body was developed, which has now become the basis for modern developments of reflexology and acupuncture, Su-Jok therapy, testing the functional state of an athlete’s skeletal muscles based on the intensity of the electric field of the skin in the bioelectrically active points above them. Ancient India became famous for its special herbal recipes and the effects of yoga and breathing exercises on the body. In Ancient Greece, the first ideas about the functions of the brain and heart were expressed in the 4th-5th centuries BC. e. Hippocrates (460-377 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC), and in Ancient Rome in the 11th century BC - the doctor Galen (201-131 BC). e.).

However, as an experimental science, physiology arose in the 17th century AD, when the English physician W. Harvey discovered the blood circulation. During the same period, the French scientist R. Descartes introduced the concept of reflex (reflection), describing the path of external information to the brain and the return path of the motor response. The works of the brilliant Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov and the German physicist G. Helmholtz on the three-component nature of color vision, the treatise of the Czech G. Prochazka on the functions of the nervous system and the observations of the Italian L. Galvani on animal electricity in nerves and muscles marked the 18th century. In the 19th century, the ideas of the English physiologist C. Sherrington about integrative processes in the nervous system were developed, set out in his famous monograph in 1906. The first studies of fatigue were carried out by the Italian A. Mosso. I. R. Tarkhanov discovered changes in constant skin potentials during irritation in humans (Tarkhanov phenomenon).

In the 19th century The works of the “father of Russian physiology” I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905) laid the foundations for the development of many areas of physiology - the study of blood gases, the processes of fatigue and “active rest”, and most importantly - the discovery in 1862 of inhibition in the central nervous system (“Sechenovsky inhibition") and the development of physiological

foundations of human mental processes, which showed the reflex nature of human behavioral reactions (“Reflexes of the Brain”, 1863). Further development of I.M. Sechenov’s ideas followed two paths. On the one hand, the study of subtle mechanisms of excitation and inhibition was carried out in St. Petersburg University N. E. Vvedensky (1852-1922). He created the idea of physiological lability as a high-speed characteristic of excitation and the doctrine of parabiosis as a general reaction of neuromuscular tissue to irritation. Later this direction was continued by his student A. A. Ukhtomsky ( 1875-1942), who, while studying the processes of coordination in the nervous system, discovered the phenomenon of the dominant (the dominant focus of excitation) and the role in these processes of assimilation of the rhythm of stimulation. On the other hand, in the conditions of a chronic experiment on the whole organism, I. P. Pavlov (1849 -1936) first created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes and developed a new chapter of physiology - the physiology of higher nervous activity. In addition, in 1904, I. P. Pavlov, one of the first Russian scientists, was awarded the Nobel Prize for his work in the field of digestion. The physiological foundations of human behavior and the role of combined reflexes were developed by V. M. Bekhterev.

Other outstanding Russian physiologists also made a major contribution to the development of physiology: the founder of evolutionary physiology and adaptology, Academician L. A. Orbeli, who studied the conditioned reflex effects of the cortex on the internal organs of Acad. K. M. Bykov, creator of the doctrine of the functional system, Acad. P. K. Anokhin, founder of Russian electroencephalography - academician. M. N. Livanov, developer of space physiology - academician. V.V. Larin, founder of the physiology of activity - N.A. Bernstein and many others.

The first Russian physiologist and doctor of medical sciences was one of the outstanding associates of Peter I, P. V. Posnikov (born in 1676). P.V. Posnikov set himself the task of experimentally studying the cause of death.

The famous Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765) did a lot for the development of physiology. He not only formulated for the first time the law of conservation of matter and transformation of energy, but also developed the scientific foundations of the oxidation process. His findings were later confirmed by the French chemist Lavoisier, who discovered oxygen. The ideas of M.V. Lomonosov were subsequently used as the basis for the doctrine of breathing. M.V. Lomonosov was the first to formulate a three-component theory of color vision, gave a classification of taste sensations, and expressed the idea that the body is a source of heat formation.

The founder of experimental physiology is Moscow University professor A. M. Filomafitsky (1802-1849), who studied issues related to the physiology of respiration, blood transfusion, and the use of anesthesia. A. M. Filomafitsky wrote the first Russian textbook on physiology:

The surgical-surgical method of studying digestive processes was started by the surgeon V. A. Basov. A great contribution to the development of Russian physiology was also made by A. T. Babukhin, who established the bilateral conduction of excitation along the nerve fiber, V. F. Ovsyannikov, who described the vasomotor center in the medulla oblongata, N. A. Mislavsky, who studied the features of the location of the respiratory center, V. Ya. Danilevsky, who discovered the presence of electrical oscillations in the central nervous system, V. Yu. Chagovets, who formulated the basic principles of the ionic excitation theory.

The work of the revolutionary democrats of the 60s of the 19th century N. G. Chernyshevsky, A. I. Herzen, V. G. Belinsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov, D. I. Pisarev had a huge influence on the formation of materialist traditions in Russian physiology. In their works they developed democratic ideas, ardently propagated the achievements of natural sciences and a materialistic worldview. Among materialist physiologists who accepted the ideas of Russian democratic enlighteners, I. M. Sechenov and I. P. Pavlov should be put in first place.

I. M. Sechenov (1829-1905) is deservedly called the father of Russian physiology. The first works of I.M. Sechenov were devoted to the problem of gas transport by blood. He invented a device - an absorptiometer - for extracting blood gases, the operating principle of which is also used in modern gas analyzers. Subsequently, while studying the transport of carbonic acid in the blood, I.M. Sechenov showed that hemoglobin in erythrocytes carries not only oxygen, but also carbon dioxide. I.M. Sechenov is the creator of labor physiology. While studying issues of fatigue, he established the importance of so-called active rest.

I.M. Sechenov’s discovery of the phenomenon of central inhibition (1862) gained worldwide recognition, which served as the basis for further study of the relationship between the processes of excitation and inhibition in the nervous system.

The study of the physiology of the central nervous system led I.M. Sechenov to the discovery of the phenomenon of summation of nerve impulses. He discovered the periodicity of electrical oscillations in the medulla oblongata.

In 1863, I.M. Sechenov’s book “Reflexes of the Brain” was published, in which the materialistic position was formulated that the activity of the brain is carried out according to the principle of a reflex and is subject not only to observation, but also to precise study. This book had an exceptionally great influence on the social thought of Russia in the 60s of the 19th century. The ideas developed by I.M. Sechenov were later developed in the works of I.P. Pavlov.

I. M. Sechenov “created a brilliant school of Russian physiologists: N. E. Vvedensky, V. F. Verigo, A. F. Samoilov.

The immediate successor of I.M. Sechenov’s research was his student N.E. Vvedensky (1852-1922), a professor at St. Petersburg University. N. E. Vvedensky developed a new method for telephone recording of electrical phenomena in living tissues. Using this method, he showed that the process of excitation depends not only on the stimulus, but also on the state of the excitable tissue. N. E. Vvedensky experimentally proved the low fatigue of nerve fibers. He established the unity of the processes of excitation and inhibition, their inextricable connection. N. E. Vvedensky developed the doctrine of parabiosis - a universal reaction of living tissue to damaging influences.

The ideas of N. E. Vvedensky continued to be developed by his student and successor at the Department of Physiology of Leningrad University A. A. Ukhtomsky (1875-1942). He created the doctrine of the dominant - the dominant focus of excitation in the central nervous system under certain conditions.

An outstanding role in the development of domestic and world physiological science was played by I. P. Pavlov (1849-1936).

I. P. Pavlov was greatly influenced by the ideas of the democratic enlighteners and the work of I. M. Sechenov “Reflexes of the Brain.” He left the Ryazan Theological Seminary and entered St. Petersburg University in 1870 in the natural sciences department of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics. Wanting to expand his knowledge in the field of physiology, after graduating from the university, I. P. Pavlov entered the Medical-Surgical Academy, which he graduated in 1879. Subsequently, I. P. Pavlov devoted his entire life to the study of physiology.

Particularly favorable conditions for the scientific activity of I. P. Pavlov were created in the very first years of Soviet power. In 1921, V.I. Lenin signed a decree, which provided for the creation of all the necessary conditions for the work of I.P. Pavlov. The Soviet government organized two research institutes specifically for the research conducted by I.P. Pavlov - the Physiological Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences in Leningrad and the biological station in Koltushi, which I.P. Pavlov called “the kingdom of conditioned reflexes.”

I. P. Pavlov is the creator of a new dialectical-materialist physiology. At the XV International Congress of Physiologists, held in 1935 in our country, I. P. Pavlov was recognized as the elder of physiologists in the world. This was a tribute to the merits of I.P. Pavlov and Russian physiological science.

The scientific activity of I. P. Pavlov developed in three directions: the first (1874-1889) is associated with the study of the physiology of blood circulation, the second (1889-1901) - the physiology of digestion, the third (1901-1936) - the higher nervous activity of animals and humans.

The study of the functions of the higher parts of the central nervous system of animals has made it possible to come close to revealing the laws of activity of the human brain. I.P. Pavlov created a doctrine about the types of higher nervous activity, which has not only theoretical, but also practical significance.

The pinnacle of I. P. Pavlov’s creativity is his doctrine of the signaling systems of the cerebral cortex. I. P. Pavlov showed the qualitative features of human higher nervous activity, studied and described the mechanisms by which abstract thinking, inherent only to humans, is carried out.

In his scientific activities, I. P. Pavlov constantly sought to put the achievements of physiology at the service of practical medicine. For example, the method of obtaining pure gastric juice developed by I.P. Pavlov was later used to prepare natural juice needed by many patients suffering from stomach diseases. The teachings of I.P. Pavlov about the types of higher nervous activity allowed neuropathologists to better understand the origin of neuroses in humans and purposefully treat them. There are many similar examples that can be given.

Before I.P. Pavlov, physiological science was dominated by analytical approach to study the functions of the body. Physiologists studied the work of individual organs, artificially isolating them from the whole organism. This made it possible to collect a lot of information about the function of individual organs, but did not reveal the interconnection of various systems of the whole organism, as well as its interaction with the external environment.

I. P. Pavlov is the creator of a new synthetic direction in physiology, which allows you to study the functions of organs, physiological processes in the whole organism, in mutual connection with the activities of other organs, taking into account the influence of the external environment. The synthetic method made it possible to establish the role of the nervous system in the regulation of vital functions. At the same time, I.P. Pavlov also used analytical methods for studying functions, but they did not have a self-important significance in his experiments. Consequently, the main principle of I. P. Pavlov’s research was analytical-synthetic approach to the physiological phenomena being studied.

The principles, ideas and methods developed by I.P. Pavlov influenced the further development of physiology.

A brief history of the development of physiology.

Introductory.

Lectures

for students of the BCCI specialty 2nd year

ʼʼHuman physiologyʼʼ

Lecture No. 1.

Physiology - the sphere of scientific knowledge about the patterns of vital processes of a living organism, its organs, tissues and cells, their relationship when various conditions and the state of the body change. It studies the physiological processes and physiological functions of a living organism and its individual parts in their relationship with each other and with the environment.

The body of physiological knowledge is divided into a number of separate but interrelated areas - general, special (or particular) and applied physiology.

General physiology includes information that relates to the nature of basic life processes, general manifestations of life activity, such as the metabolism of organs and tissues, general patterns of the body’s response (irritation, excitation, inhibition) and its structures to environmental influences.

Special (private) physiology explores the characteristics of individual tissues (muscle, nervous, etc.), organs (liver, kidneys, heart, etc.), patterns of their integration into systems (respiratory, digestive, circulatory systems).

Applied Physiology studies the patterns of manifestations of human activity in connection with special tasks and conditions (physiology of work, nutrition, sports).

The development and formation of ideas about physiology begin in ancient times.

Hippocrates (c. 460-c. 370 BC) is one of the outstanding medical scientists of Ancient Greece. He attached paramount importance to the study of physiology, considering it the basis of all medicine.

To the most significant achievements of the 17-18 centuries. refers to the concept of “reflected activity of the organism” formulated by the French philosopher and physiologist Rene Descartes. He introduced the concept of reflex into physiology.

In the 18th-19th centuries. A particularly significant contribution in the field of physiology was made by a number of Russian scientists - M.V. Lomonosov, S.G. Zabelin, E.O. Mukhin, P.F. Lesgavtom.

The formation of physiology as an independent science in the 20th century. significantly contributed to advances in the field of physics and chemistry, which gave researchers precise methodological techniques that made it possible to characterize the physical and chemical essence of physiological processes.

THEM. Sechenov (1829-1905) entered the history of science as the first experimental researcher of a phenomenon that was complex in nature - consciousness. Besides. He was the first who managed to study gases dissolved in the blood and establish the relative effectiveness of the influence of various ions on physical and chemical processes in a living organism.

The development of physiology was greatly influenced by the works of I.P. Pavlova (1849-1936). He created the doctrine of the higher nervous activity of humans and animals. At the same time, he studied the physiology of digestion. Having developed and put into practice a number of special surgical techniques, he created a new physiology of digestion.

A brief history of the development of physiology. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Brief history of the development of physiology." 2017, 2018.

It arose in ancient times from the needs of medicine, since in order to prevent diseases and treat people it was necessary to know the structure of the body and the functions of organs. Therefore, doctors of ancient Greece and Rome studied anatomy and physiology. The physiological knowledge of ancient scientists was based mainly on guesswork, vivisections were carried out very rarely and therefore many conclusions about the functions of the body were inaccurate or erroneous.

The few physiological facts obtained by scientists of the ancient world were deliberately hushed up until the 14th-15th centuries. during the times of feudalism, and the idealistic speculative assumptions of the ancients about the existence of a soul independent of the body were canonized in all religious beliefs and established as immutable truths. In the Middle Ages, religious dogmas were forcibly imposed, and scientific knowledge was brutally eradicated. The Catholic Church forbade dissecting corpses, without which accurate knowledge of the structure of the body is impossible. In the Middle Ages, religion led to stagnation of experimental science and caused great harm to its development.

The revival of anatomy and physiology began with the collapse of feudal society. A. Vesalius (1514-1564) was not only the founder of modern human anatomy, but also carried out vivisections on dogs, which made it possible to establish important facts. M. Servetus (1509 or 1511-1553) studied in detail the pulmonary circulation, changes in blood in the lungs and suggested the existence of capillaries in them. For his bold scientific views directed against religion, M. Servetus was burned by the clergy.

The anatomist Fabricius (1537-1619) discovered valves in the veins.

The English physician William Harvey (1578-1657) discovered the great circulation in his experiments on animals and through observations in humans. He based his conclusions on the results of animal vivisection, therefore his scientific work is physiological and is considered the beginning of modern experimental physiology.

In the first half of the 17th century. Natural scientist and philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650), conducting vivisections on animals and observations on humans, studied the role of the heart and digestion. His main discovery in physiology is the scheme of an unconditioned reflex based on the study of the act of blinking when touching the cornea.

Descartes' idea of the reflex was further developed by the works of the Czech scientist I. Prohaska (1749-1820).

An important contribution to physiology was made by the Italian physiologist and physicist L. Galvani (1737-1798), one of the founders of the theory. He discovered the occurrence of electric current in the nerves and muscles of a frog when they were simultaneously in contact with two dissimilar materials (iron and copper), which caused muscle contraction, and then proved the existence of electricity in the nerves. The Italian physicist and physiologist A. Volta (1745-1827) explained that when nerves and muscles come into contact with two dissimilar metals at the same time, an external electric current acts, and not its own electricity. He showed that electric current excites the sense organs, nerves and muscles. Thus, Galvani and Volta became the founders of electrophysiology, which was further developed in the works of the German physiologist Dubois-Reymond (1818-1896) and others.

Of great importance for physiology were the biochemical studies of digestive enzymes and the role of enzymes in protein synthesis carried out by A. Ya. Danilevsky (1838-1923).

C. Bell (1774-1842) and F. Magendie (1783-1855) proved that centripetal (sensitive) and centrifugal nerve fibers exist separately. C. Bell discovered muscle sensitivity and argued about the existence of a nerve, reflex ring between the brain and skeletal muscle.

F. Magendie proved the influence of the nervous system on the regulation of metabolism in organs and tissues - the trophic function of the nervous system. Magendie's student Claude Bernard (1813-1878) made many important physiological discoveries: he showed the digestive importance of saliva and pancreatic juice, discovered the synthesis of carbohydrates in the liver and its role in maintaining sugar levels, the role of the nervous system in carbohydrate metabolism and in the regulation of the lumen of blood vessels , the functions of many nerves were discovered, blood pressure, blood gases, electrical currents of nerves and muscles and many other issues were studied.

K. Bernard believed that most of the most important functions of the body are regulated by the nervous system.

J. Müller (1801-1858) and his school also made significant contributions to physiology in the last century. He authored numerous studies on anatomy, comparative anatomy, histology, embryology, physiology of the sense organs, vocal apparatus and reflexes. His student G. Helmholtz (1821-1894) made important discoveries in the field of physics, physiology of vision and hearing, nervous and muscular systems.

For the development of modern physiology, research on the nature of the nervous process (A. Hodgkin, A. Huxley, etc.), on the patterns of functioning of the nervous system (C. Sherrington, R. Magnus, D. Eccles, etc.) and sensory organs ( R. Granit), about active substances involved in the transmission of the nervous process (G. Dale, D. Nahmanson, M. Bakk, etc.), about the functions of the brain stem (G. Magun, G. Moruzzi, etc.), the brain (Yu. Konorsky), the cardiovascular system (V. Starling, K. Wiggers, K. Gaymans, etc.), about digestion (I.M. Bayliss, A. Ivey, etc.), nocturnal activity (A. Keshni, A Richards and others).

Russian physiological school

In Russia, physiology originated in the 18th century. Physiological experiments were carried out by V. F. Zuev (1754-1794), A. M. Filomafitsky (1807-1849) and others. The first Russian textbook of physiology was written by D. M. Vellansky (1773-1847). At first, the physiology of respiration, blood and circulation, and movement were studied, and then the main focus was the study of the functions of different parts of the nervous system (D. N. Orlovsky, 1821 - 1856; A. A. Sokolovsky, 1822-1891, etc.).

The founder of the Russian school of physiology was I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905). In 1862, he discovered inhibition in nerve centers, and in 1868, the summation of excitation in them. He was one of the first to conduct electrophysiological studies of the nervous system. The work of I.M. Sechenov “Reflexes of the Brain” sets out the main idea of the reflex theory.

The reflex theory of I. M. Sechenov was developed in the works of I. P. Pavlov (1849-1936), as well as his direct students - N. E. Vvedensky (1852-1922), A. F. Samoilov (1867-1930) and etc.

Outstanding discoveries in the physiology of the nervous system were made by teachers I. P. Pavlova, I. F. Tsion (1842-1912) and F. V. Ovsyannikov (1827-1906).

F.V. Ovsyannikov studied the regulation of blood circulation by the central nervous system.

I. P. Pavlov proceeded from the leading role of the nervous system in the interaction of the entire animal organism with the external environment and in the regulation of the activity of all one hundred organs. He experimentally developed the principle of nervism, which consists of studying the influence of the nervous system on all functions of the body. The school of I.P. Pavlov occupies a leading place in Russian physiology.

N. E. Vvedensky created the theory of the unity of excitation and inhibition, their mutual transitions, and carried out important electrophysiological work on the study of the functions of nerves and muscles. His student A. A. Ukhtomsky (1875-1942) substantiated the principle of operation of nerve centers - the theory of the dominant, which is a further development of the concepts of I. P. Pavlov and N. E. Vvedensky about the relationships of nerve centers, and also created the idea of assimilation by the nervous system rhythm of stimulation. A. F. Samoilov (1867-1930) made a great contribution to electrophysiology and successfully developed the theory of chemical transmitters of the nervous process.

In studying the functions of animal organisms, I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov and their students were guided by the ideas of Charles Darwin. Russian physiology is characterized by the study of functions in evolution, in their phylo- and ontogenetic development. I. P. Pavlov’s student L. A. Orbeli (1882-1958) created modern Russian evolutionary physiology and deeply studied the role of the autonomic nervous system in the activity of the brain, sensory organs and skeletal muscles.

V. M. Bekhterev (1857-1927) developed the theory of conditioned reflexes in the pathology of the human nervous system and in psychiatry and deeply studied the structure and functions of the nervous system. Using the method of conditioned (combinative) reflexes on humans and animals and operations on animals, he studied the influence of internal organs on the activity of the brain and the regulation of the work of internal organs by the brain.