Despite the fact that Niccolò Machiavelli created his philosophical works in the 16th century, the concepts of the Great Florentine are still used in political practice, management and some social sciences. His works were criticized many times, but still remained classics in the field of political science and political history. Machiavelli's ideas are, first of all, practical recommendations based on the vast experience of the Florentine writer and politician.
Florence in the time of Machiavelli
Machiavelli's political and philosophical views are directly related to the events he experienced and the social processes that he had to face. The political structure of Florence during Machiavelli's life was very peculiar. During the wars between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, a commune system was formed here, which allowed residents to independently govern their city. 25 years before the birth of Niccolo Machiavelli, power in the city was seized by the powerful Medici dynasty. At the same time, members of the Medici family did not hold any government positions; their power was based on authority and wealth. Formally, Florence remained a democratic commune, but in fact it was an oligarchy - all the most important issues of the city were decided by the Medici. The Medici were patrons of science and the arts, and under them the humanistic movement began to flourish in Florence.
In 1492, the unofficial head of the city, Lorenzo Medici, died and the struggle for control over Florence began with the abbot of the local monastery, Girolamo Savonarola. Savonarola managed to achieve the expulsion of the Medici family from Florence, and after that he began to introduce new orders, aimed, in his opinion, at reviving the morality of the townspeople. Songs, dances, fun and luxurious outfits were prohibited in the city. The persecution of many humanists began, and works of art were destroyed. The city plunged into asceticism and despondency. Savonarola's dictatorship lasted 5 years and ended with the execution of the power-hungry abbot in 1498.
Even during Savonarola's lifetime, chaos began in the city. Italy of the 16th century was not a single state, but a collection of strong cities and principalities pursuing independent policies. Many foreign rulers and representatives of Italian noble families were tempted to unite Italy under their leadership. Of course, the rich and majestic Florence attracted conquerors. Therefore, at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, Florence found itself at the very epicenter of the Italian wars that flared up on the Apennine Peninsula. The city-commune was simultaneously claimed by:
- France,
- Spain,
- Holy Roman Empire.
Biography of Niccolo Machiavelli
The future writer was born on May 3, 1469 in the village of San Casciano, near Florence. His family was very noble, but not rich. The head of the family, Bernardo Machiavelli, served as a notary. He was a man who was skeptical about religion and deeply interested in ancient literature. Subsequently, his views would have a great influence on Nicollo's philosophy.
Machiavelli received his education at the city school of Florence and from private teachers. So he learned to count, write, Latin and became acquainted with the works of ancient classics - Titus Livy, Cicero, Suetonius, Caesar. However, the young man was interested not only in ancient authors. He read the books of Dante and Petrarch and concluded that these authors managed to masterfully describe the characteristics of the mentality and the main vices of the Italians. At that time, Florence was one of the main cultural centers of Italy, so Niccolo was able to get acquainted with the best achievements of art and science of that time.
Due to lack of money, Niccolo was unable to enter university, but under the guidance of his father he learned a little about law. These skills allowed Machiavelli to take up government work. He took his first steps in the political field under Savonarola, serving as secretary and ambassador. Despite the fact that after the execution of Savonarola, Machiavelli was disgraced for some time, in the same 1498, he took the important post of secretary of the second chancellery of the republic and became secretary of the Council of Ten. The young politician had to balance between supporters of the Medici and the party of the late Savonarola, without joining any of the coalitions.
However, Machiavelli's work was very effective, and he soon began to enjoy the respect of representatives of both factions. For 14 years, Machiavelli was regularly re-elected. Over the years, he gave thousands of orders, commanded several military companies, more than once represented Florence in other city-republics and outside the borders of Italy, and also resolved many complex diplomatic disputes. At the same time, Machiavelli continued to read ancient authors and study political theory.
In 1502, the position of lifelong gonfalonier appeared in Florence (before this, gonfaloniers were replaced every month). Gonfaloniere could convene councils, initiate the development of laws and, in fact, was the most important person in the republic. Piero Soderini, who later became a close friend of Machiavelli, was appointed to this position. Soderini lacked a little insight and organizational skills, so in all matters he began to rely on Machiavelli, who quickly became a real Florentine “gray eminence.” Machiavelli's advice was very useful; they made it possible to strengthen Florence and increase its wealth.
However, in 1512 Florence suffered a serious blow. The troops of Giovanni Medici entered the city, restoring his family's power over the republic. Soderini fled Florence, and Machiavelli was captured, accused of plotting against the Medici and thrown into prison. He was soon released, but Machiavelli was no longer able to regain his former power. He was exiled to his small estate in San Casciano.
Machiavelli was very upset by his forced inaction and wanted to serve Florence and Italy again. But the Medici considered him unreliable and suppressed all his attempts to again occupy any government post. Therefore, the period from 1513 to 1520 became for Machiavelli a time to take stock of his vigorous activity and active literary creativity. During these years the following works were created:
- "The Sovereign" (1513);
- "The Art of War" (1519-20);
- theatrical play “Mandrake”;
- fairy tale "Belphagor" and much more.
In 1520, the disgraced philosopher and politician began to be treated more gently. He was able to often come to Florence and carry out small government assignments. At the same time, Machiavelli took the position of state historiographer of Florence and, by order of the Pope, wrote the work “History of Florence.”
At the very end of his life, Machiavelli had to endure new shocks. In 1527, Italy was ravaged by Spain. Rome fell and the Pope was under siege. Another coup took place in Florence, ending with the expulsion of the Medici. The townspeople began to restore the democratic system and Machiavelli hoped to return to work as an official in the revived republic. However, the new government simply ignored him. The shocks associated with the defeat of Italy and the inability to do what he loved had a negative impact on the philosopher’s health. On June 21, 1527, Machiavelli died.
Machiavelli's ideas
Machiavelli's literary heritage is very extensive. It includes many of his reports on the implementation of diplomatic missions and memos on the foreign policy situation. In these documents, Machiavelli outlined his views on certain events and the behavior of heads of state. However, the most important and famous work of the Florentine philosopher is the work “The Prince”. It is believed that the prototype of the sovereign described in the work of Machiavelli was Cesare Borgia, Duke of Romagna and Valentinois. This man became famous for his immorality and cruelty. But at the same time, Cesare Borgia was distinguished by his insight and careful approach to solving important state issues. Also, Machiavelli's work was based on his own experience and analysis of the political life of contemporary countries and ancient powers.
In The Prince, Machiavelli expressed the following ideas:
- The optimal form of government is an absolute monarchy, although in some cases a republic can also be effective;
- History is cyclical. All states go through the same phases endlessly. First - one-man rule; then - the power of the highest aristocracy; then a republic. However, republican rule cannot last forever; sooner or later it will again be replaced by an absolute monarchy;
- The change in the phases described above is associated with a clash of interests of many social groups. Machiavelli was one of the first to note the dialectic of the historical process;
- The three main pillars of any sovereign: legislation, army and allies;
- The most important state tasks can be solved by any means, even not the most humane ones. The latter can be resorted to in cases where the question of creating or maintaining a state arises;
- A good sovereign must be able to combine honesty and deceit, kindness and cruelty. By skillfully using one or the other, a ruler can achieve absolutely any goals. The sovereign should not avoid hypocrisy; cunning is the main weapon in the political field;
- The sovereign must instill fear in his subjects, but not hatred. In order to avoid the latter, the ruler should not abuse cruelty and be able to soberly assess the current situation in the country. Machiavelli was a categorical opponent of tyranny. In his opinion, tyrants are weak people who destroy themselves and their good name;
- The sovereign should not be a spendthrift;
- The most dangerous people for the state are flatterers. The sovereign must bring closer to himself those people who always tell the truth, no matter how bitter it may be.
Also in his work, Machiavelli discussed how best to keep conquered states in his power, how to subjugate the population of other countries and how best to fight with the most powerful neighbors.
Machiavelli's ideas were not limited to government administration alone. The writer laid the foundations for a completely new way of thinking, different from medieval scholasticism. Machiavelli believed that philosophy should not be reduced to empty contemplation, but be practical in nature and serve for the benefit of society. In fact, Machiavelli became the founder of a new field of knowledge - political science. He began developing its subject, object of study and methodology.
To a modern person, the philosophy expounded on the pages of Machiavelli’s book may seem inhumane and anti-democratic. Moreover, Machiavelli's ideas were also criticized by his contemporaries. The philosopher directly asserted that all processes occurring in the state are not a manifestation of divine will, but are generated by a person who is not always distinguished by high moral principles. In fact, this idea made a real revolution in political teaching, making this scientific field purely secular. At the same time, Machiavelli rethought the concept of “morality”, also rejecting its religious interpretation. Morality and morality for the Florentine writer, first of all, concerned the relationship between man and society. Because of these ideas, the Catholic Church included all of Machiavelli's works in the "Index of Prohibited Books."
Niccolo Machiavelli (born May 3, 1469 - died June 21, 1527) - Italian thinker, writer, politician (served as Secretary of State in Florence).
Niccolò Machiavelli was born in the village of San Casciano near the city-state of Florence, Italy, in 1469, the second son of Bernardo di Nicolo Machiavelli (1426–1500), a lawyer, and Bartolommea di Stefano Neli. His education gave him a complete knowledge of the Latin and Italian classics. Machiavelli was born into a tumultuous era in which the Pope could lead armies and the rich city-states of Italy fell one after another into the hands of foreign France, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. It was a time of constant change of alliances, mercenaries who went over to the side of rivals without warning, when power, after existing for several weeks, collapsed and was replaced by a new one. Perhaps the most significant event during this chaotic upheaval was the fall of Rome in 1527. Rich cities like Florence and Genoa suffered much the same as Rome did 12 centuries ago when it was burned by the German army.
The end justifies the means.
Machiavelli Niccolo
In 1494, Florence restored the Republic and removed the Medici family, rulers of the city for almost 60 years. Machiavelli appeared in public service as secretary and ambassador in 1498.
Machiavelli was placed on the Council, responsible for diplomatic negotiations and military affairs. Between 1499 and 1512 he undertook many diplomatic missions to the court of Louis XII of France, Ferdinand II, and the Papal Court in Rome. From 1502 to 1503 he witnessed the effective urban planning methods of the clergyman Cesare Borgia, an extremely capable military leader and statesman whose goal at that time was to expand his possessions in central Italy. His main tools were courage, prudence, self-confidence, firmness, and sometimes cruelty.
From 1503–1506, Machiavelli was responsible for the Florentine militia, including the defense of the city. He distrusted mercenaries (a position explained in detail in the Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livius and in The Prince) and preferred a militia formed from citizens. In August 1512, after a confusing series of battles, agreements and alliances, the Medici, with the help of Pope Julius II, regained power in Florence and the republic was abolished. Machiavelli, who played a significant role in the government of the republic, found himself in disgrace; in 1513 he was accused of conspiracy and arrested. Despite everything, he denied any involvement and was eventually released. He retired to his estate at Sant'Andrea in Percussina near Florence and began writing treatises that secured his place in the history of political philosophy. Machiavelli died in San Casciano, a few kilometers from Florence, in 1527. The location of his grave is unknown; however, a cenotaph in his honor is located in the Church of Santa Croce in Florence.
He was a supporter of strong state power, allowing, if necessary, the use of any means to strengthen it (“Prince”, published in 1532). Author of military theoretical works. A typical representative of humanism - the secular worldview of the Renaissance.
In his works “The Prince” and “Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livy,” Machiavelli considers the state as the political state of society: the relationship between the rulers and the ruled, the presence of appropriately structured, organized political power, institutions, and laws. Machiavelli calls politics an “experimental science” that explains the past, guides the present and is able to predict the future.
But you need to know that there is no business whose organization would be more difficult, its management more dangerous, and its success more doubtful than the replacement of old orders with new ones.
Machiavelli Niccolo
Historically, Machiavelli has been portrayed as a subtle cynic who believes that political behavior is based on profit and power, and that politics should be based on force, and not on morality, which can be neglected if there is a good goal. However, such ideas should rather be attributed to the historically formed image of Machiavelli than to objective reality. Perhaps the mentioned image was influenced by Machiavelli's direct, honest approach, ability to call a spade a spade, as well as the perception of his contemporaries, who viewed his works through the prism of their own religious, idealistic ideas, and the approaching eras of sentimentalism and romanticism. In the 21st century, Machiavelli’s works are unlikely to seem more cynical than any newspaper article. In addition, human psychology should be taken into account here: smart people inspire fear because of their incomprehensibility, therefore modern politicians, working on their image, try to appear understandable to the masses.
He became interested in politics from his youth, as evidenced by a letter dated March 9, 1498, the second that has come down to us, in which he addresses his friend Riccardo Becchi, the Florentine ambassador in Rome, with a critical characterization of the actions of Girolamo Savonarola. The first surviving letter, dated December 2, 1497, was addressed to Cardinal Giovanni Lopez (Italian) Russian, with a request to recognize the disputed lands of the Pazzi family for his family.
Carier start
In the life of Niccolo Machiavelli, two stages can be distinguished: during the first part of his life, he was mainly involved in state affairs. In 1512, the second stage began, marked by the forced removal of Machiavelli from active politics.
Machiavelli lived in a turbulent era, when the Pope could have an entire army, and the rich city-states of Italy fell one after another under the rule of foreign powers - France, Spain or the Holy Roman Empire. It was a time of constant changes in alliances, mercenaries going over to the enemy’s side without warning, when power, after existing for several weeks, collapsed and was replaced by a new one. Perhaps the most significant event in this series of chaotic upheavals was the fall of Rome in 1527. Rich cities like Genoa suffered much the same as Rome five centuries ago, when it was burned by an army of barbarian Germans.
In 1494, the French king Charles VIII entered Italy and reached Florence in November. Young Piero di Lorenzo de' Medici, whose family ruled the city for almost 60 years, hastily went to the royal camp, achieving, however, only the signing of a humiliating peace treaty, the surrender of several key fortresses and the payment of a huge indemnity. Piero did not have the legal authority to enter into such an agreement, especially without the sanction of the Signoria. He was expelled from Florence by the indignant people, and his house was plundered.
The monk Savonarola was placed at the head of the new embassy to the French king. During this troubled time, Savonarola became the real ruler of Florence. Under his influence, the Florentine Republic was restored in 1494, and republican institutions were also returned. At the suggestion of Savonarola, the “Great Council” and the “Council of Eighty” were established.
After the execution of Savonarola, Machiavelli was again re-elected to the Council of Eighty, responsible for diplomatic negotiations and military affairs, thanks to the authoritative recommendation of the Prime Secretary of the Republic, Marcello Adriani (Italian) Russian, a famous humanist who was his teacher.
Theoretically, the First Chancellery of the Florentine Republic was in charge of foreign affairs, and the Second Chancellery was in charge of internal affairs and the city militia. But in practice, such a distinction turned out to be very arbitrary, and often matters were decided by the one who had a greater chance of achieving success through connections, influence or abilities.
Between 1499 and 1512, on behalf of the government, he undertook many diplomatic missions to the court of Louis XII of France, Ferdinand II, and the Papal Court in Rome.
At that time, Italy was fragmented into a dozen states, and wars between France and the Holy Roman Empire began over the Kingdom of Naples. Wars were then fought by mercenary armies and Florence had to maneuver between strong rivals, and the role of ambassador often fell to Machiavelli. In addition, the siege of the rebel Pisa took a lot of time and effort from the government of Florence and its plenipotentiary representative to the army, Niccolo Machiavelli.
On January 14, 1501, Machiavelli was able to return to Florence again. He reached a venerable age, by Florentine standards - he was thirty-two years old, he held a position that provided him with a high position in society and a decent income. And in August of the same year, Niccolo married a lady from an old and illustrious family - Marietta, daughter of Luigi Corsini.
The Corsini family occupied a higher level in the social hierarchy than the Machiavelli branch to which Niccolo belonged. On the one hand, the relationship with Corsini raised Niccolo higher on the social ladder, and on the other, Marietta’s family could benefit from Machiavelli’s political connections.
Niccolo had deep sympathy for his wife; they had five children. Over the years, thanks to daily efforts and cohabitation in both sorrow and joy, their marriage, concluded for the sake of social convention, turned into love and trust. What is noteworthy is that both in the first will of 1512 and in the last will of 1523, Niccolo chose his wife as the guardian of his children, although male relatives were often appointed.
While abroad on diplomatic business for a long period, Machiavelli usually started relationships with other women.
Influence of Cesare Borgia
From 1502 to 1503, he witnessed the effective wars of conquest of Cesare Borgia, son of Pope Alexander VI, an extremely capable military leader and statesman, whose goal at that time was to expand his possessions in central Italy. Cesare was always brave, prudent, self-confident, firm, and sometimes cruel.
In June 1502, the victorious army of the Borgia, clanging their weapons, approached the borders of Florence. The frightened Republic immediately sent ambassadors to him for negotiations - Francesco Soderini, Bishop of Volterra, and the secretary of the Ten, Niccolo Machiavelli. On June 24 they appeared before the Borgia. In a report to the government, Niccolo noted:
“This sovereign is beautiful, majestic and so warlike that every great undertaking is a trifle for him. He does not stop if he thirsts for glory or new conquests, just as he knows neither fatigue nor fear. ..and also gained the constant favor of Fortune" .
In one of his early works [ ] Machiavelli noted:
Borgia possesses one of the most important attributes of a great man: he is a skilled adventurer and knows how to use the chance given to him to his greatest advantage.
The months spent in the company of Cesare Borgia served as an impetus for Machiavelli’s understanding of the ideas of “statecraft, independent of moral principles,” which were later reflected in the treatise “The Prince”. Apparently, due to his very close relationship with “Lady Luck,” Cesare was very intriguing to Niccolo.
Machiavelli constantly criticized the “soldiers of fortune” in his speeches and reports, calling them treacherous, cowardly and greedy. Niccolo wanted to downplay the role of mercenaries in order to defend his proposal for the creation of a regular army that the republic could easily control. Having its own army would allow Florence not to depend on mercenaries and French help. From a letter to Machiavelli:
“The only way to gain power and strength is to pass a law that would govern the army being created and maintain it in proper order ».
In December 1505, the Ten finally commissioned Machiavelli to begin creating a militia. And on February 15, a select detachment of pikemen militia paraded through the streets of Florence to the enthusiastic cheers of the crowd; all the soldiers were in well-fitted red and white (the colors of the city flag) uniform, “in cuirasses, armed with pikes and arquebuses.” Florence now has its own army.
Machiavelli became an "armed prophet."
“That is why all the armed prophets won, and all the unarmed ones died, for, in addition to what has been said, it should be borne in mind that the character of people is fickle, and if it is easy to convert them to your faith, it is difficult to keep them in it. Therefore, you need to be prepared by force make those who have lost faith believe". Niccolo Machiavelli. Sovereign
Subsequently, Machiavelli was an envoy to Louis XII, Maximilian I of Habsburg, inspected fortresses, and was even able to create cavalry in the Florentine militia. Accepted the capitulation of Pisa and put his signature on the surrender agreement.
When the Florentine people, having learned of the fall of Pisa, indulged in rejoicing, Niccolò received a letter from his friend Agostino Vespucci: “With your army, you have done an impeccable job and helped to bring closer the time when Florence again regained what rightfully belonged to it.”
Filippo Casavecchia, who never doubted Niccolò's abilities, wrote: “I do not believe that idiots will comprehend the train of your thoughts, while the wise are few and far between. Every day I come to the conclusion that you are superior even to those prophets who were born among the Jews and other nations."
Return of the Medici to Florence
Machiavelli was not dismissed by the new rulers of the city. But he made several mistakes by continuing to constantly express his thoughts on topical issues. Although no one asked him and his opinion was very different from the internal policy pursued by the new authorities. He opposed the return of property to the returning Medici, offering to pay them simply compensation, and the next time in the appeal “To Palleschi” (II Ricordo ag Palleschi) he called on the Medici not to trust those who had gone over to their side after the fall of the republic.
Disgrace, return to service and resignation again
Machiavelli fell into disgrace, and in 1513 he was accused of conspiracy against the Medici and arrested. Despite the severity of imprisonment and torture on the rack. Then I go into an inn on the high road. It’s interesting to talk with people passing by, learn about news in foreign lands and at home, and observe how different people’s tastes and fantasies are. When lunch hour arrives, I sit with my family at a modest meal. After lunch, I return again to the inn, where its owner, the butcher, the miller and two brickmakers usually have already gathered. With them I spend the rest of the day playing cards...
When evening comes, I return home and go to my work room. At the door I throw off my peasant dress, all covered in dirt and slush, put on royal court clothes and, dressed in a dignified manner, go to the ancient courts of the people of antiquity. There, kindly received by them, I am satisfied with the food that is the only one suitable for me, and for which I was born. There I do not hesitate to talk to them and ask about the meaning of their actions, and they, with their inherent humanity, answer me. And for four hours I don’t feel any melancholy, I forget all my worries, I’m not afraid of poverty, I’m not afraid of death, and I’m completely transported to them.
On behalf of the pope, containing instructions to go with the famous engineer and then military architect Pedro Navarro - a former siege specialist, defector and pirate - to inspect the fortress walls of Florence and prepare for a possible siege of the city. The choice fell on Niccolo, since he was considered an expert in military affairs: the seventh chapter of his treatise “On the Art of War” was separately devoted to sieges of cities - and, according to generally accepted opinion, was the best in the entire book. The support of Guicciardini and Strozzi also played a role, both talked about this with the pontiff.
- On May 9, 1526, by order of Clement VII, the Council of the Sta decided to establish a new body in the government of Florence - the College of Five for the Fortification of the Walls (Procuratori delleMura), whose secretary was Niccolò Machiavelli.
But Machiavelli's hopes for the stability of his returned career were deceived. In 1527, after Rome was sacked, which once again showed the full extent of the fall of Italy, republican rule was restored in Florence, lasting three years. Machiavelli's hopes of regaining the position of secretary of the College of Ten did not come true. The new government no longer noticed him.
Machiavelli's spirit was broken, his health was undermined, and after 10 days the thinker's life ended on June 22, 1527 in San Casciano, a few kilometers from Florence. The location of his grave is unknown; however, a cenotaph in his honor is located in the Church of Santa Croce in Florence. The inscription is engraved on the monument: No epitaph can express the greatness of this name..
Niccolò Machiavelli (Machiavelli, Italian: Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli). Born May 3, 1469 in Florence - died June 21, 1527 there. Italian thinker, philosopher, writer, politician. He held the post of secretary of the second chancellery in Florence, was responsible for diplomatic relations of the republic, and was the author of military theoretical works. He was a supporter of strong state power, to strengthen which he allowed the use of any means, which he expressed in the famous work “The Sovereign,” published in 1532.
Niccolò Machiavelli was born in the village of San Casciano, near the city-state of Florence, in 1469, the son of Bernardo di Niccolò Machiavelli (1426-1500), a lawyer, and Bartolomme di Stefano Neli (1441-1496).
He had two older sisters - Primavera (1465), Margarita (1468), and a younger brother Totto (1475).
His education gave him a complete knowledge of the Latin and Italian classics. Was familiar with the works of Josephus. He did not study Ancient Greek, but read Latin translations, and from which he drew inspiration for his historical treatises.
He became interested in politics from his youth, as evidenced by a letter dated March 9, 1498, the second that has come down to us, in which he addresses his friend Riccardo Becchi, the Florentine ambassador in Rome, with a critical characterization of the actions of Girolamo Savonarola. The first surviving letter, dated December 2, 1497, was addressed to Cardinal Giovanni Lopez, asking him to recognize the disputed lands of the Pazzi family for his family.
Historian biographer Roberto Ridolfi describes Machiavelli as follows: “He was a slender man, of average height, with a thin build. He had black hair, white skin, a small head, a thin face, a high forehead. Very bright eyes and thin compressed lips, always seeming to smile a little ambiguously.”.
In the life of Niccolo Machiavelli, two stages can be distinguished: during the first part of his life, he was mainly involved in state affairs. In 1512, the second stage began, marked by the forced removal of Machiavelli from active politics.
Machiavelli lived in a turbulent era, when the Pope could have an entire army, and the rich city-states of Italy fell one after another under the rule of foreign powers - France, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. It was a time of constant changes in alliances, mercenaries going over to the enemy’s side without warning, when power, after existing for several weeks, collapsed and was replaced by a new one. Perhaps the most significant event in this series of chaotic upheavals was the fall of Rome in 1527. Rich cities like Florence and Genoa suffered much the same as Rome 5 centuries ago, when it was burned by an army of barbarian Germans.
In 1494, the French king Charles VIII entered Italy and arrived in Florence in November. Piero di Lorenzo de' Medici, whose family ruled the city for almost 60 years, was expelled as a traitor. The monk Savonarola was placed at the head of the embassy to the French king.
During this troubled time, Savonarola became the real ruler of Florence. Under his influence, the Florentine Republic was restored in 1494, and republican institutions were also returned. At the suggestion of Savonarola, the “Great Council” and the “Council of Eighty” were established. 4 years later, with the support of Savonarola, Machiavelli appeared in public service, as secretary and ambassador (in 1498).
Despite the quick disgrace and execution of Savonarola, six months later Machiavelli was re-elected to the Council of Eighty, responsible for diplomatic negotiations and military affairs, thanks to the authoritative recommendation of the Prime Secretary of the Republic, Marcello Adriani, a famous humanist who was his teacher.
Between 1499 and 1512 he undertook many diplomatic missions to the court of Louis XII of France, Ferdinand II, and the Papal Court in Rome.
On January 14, 1501, Machiavelli was able to return to Florence again, where he married Marietta di Luigi Corsini, who came from a family occupying the same level of the social ladder as Machiavelli’s family. Their marriage was an act that united two families into a mutually beneficial union, but Niccolo had deep sympathy for his wife, and they had five children. While abroad on diplomatic business for a long period, Machiavelli usually began relationships with other women, for whom he also had tender feelings.
From 1502 to 1503 he witnessed the effective urban planning methods of the clerical soldier Cesare Borgia, an extremely capable military leader and statesman whose goal at that time was to expand his possessions in central Italy. His main tools were courage, prudence, self-confidence, firmness, and sometimes cruelty.
Historians believe that it was the months spent in the company of Cesare Borgia that gave rise to Machiavelli’s idea of “statecraft, independent of moral principles,” which was later reflected in the treatise “The Prince.”
The death of Pope Alexander VI, Cesare Borgia's father, deprived Cesare of financial and political resources. The political ambitions of the Vatican were traditionally limited by the fact that to the north of the Papal States there were scattered communes, de facto ruled by independent princes from local feudal families - Montefeltro, Malatesta and Bentivoglio. Alternating sieges with political assassinations, Cesare and Alexander united all of Umbria, Emilia and Romagna under their rule in a few years. But the Duchy of Romagna again began to disintegrate into small possessions, while Emilia was taken over by the noble families of Imola and Rimini.
After the brief, 27-day pontificate of Pius III, Machiavelli was sent to Rome on October 24, 1503, where at a conclave on November 1, Julius II, noted by history as one of the most militant popes, was elected pope.
In a letter dated November 24, Machiavelli tried to predict the political intentions of the new Pope, whose main opponents were Venice and France, which played into the hands of Florence, which feared Venetian expansionist ambitions. On the same day, November 24, in Rome, Machiavelli receives news of the birth of his second child, Bernardo.
In the house of the Gonfaloniere Soderini, Machiavelli discusses plans to create a people's militia in Florence to replace the city guard, consisting of mercenary soldiers who seemed to Machiavelli to be traitors. Machiavelli was the first in the history of Florence to create a professional army. It was thanks to the creation of a combat-ready professional army in Florence that Soderini managed to return Pisa, which had separated in 1494, to the Republic.
From 1503 to 1506, Machiavelli was responsible for the Florentine guards, including the defense of the city. He distrusted mercenaries (a position explained in detail in the Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livius and in The Prince) and preferred a militia formed from citizens.
By 1512, the Holy League, under the leadership of Pope Julius II, achieved the withdrawal of French troops from Italy. After this, the pope turned his troops against France's Italian allies. Florence was “granted” by Julius II to his loyal supporter Cardinal Giovanni Medici, who commanded the troops in the last battle with the French.
On September 1, 1512, Giovanni de' Medici, second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, entered the city of his ancestors, restoring his family's rule over Florence. The Republic was abolished.
Machiavelli fell into disgrace, and in 1513 he was accused of conspiracy and arrested.
Despite the severity of his imprisonment and torture, he denied any involvement and was eventually released. He retired to his estate at Sant'Andrea in Percussina near Florence and began to write treatises that secured his place in the history of political philosophy.
In November 1520 he was called to Florence and received the position of historiographer. In 1520 - 1525 he wrote The History of Florence.
Machiavelli died in San Casciano, a few kilometers from Florence, in 1527. The location of his grave is unknown. However, a cenotaph in his honor is located in the Church of Santa Croce in Florence. The inscription on the monument reads: No epitaph can express the greatness of this name.
Works of Niccolo Machiavelli:
"The Prince" (Il Principe)
Reasoning:
"Discourses on the first decade of Tito Livio" (Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio)
Discorso sopra le cose di Pisa (1499)
“On how to deal with the rebels of Valdichiana” (Del modo di trattare i popoli della Valdichiana ribellati) (1502)
“Description of how Duke Valentino got rid of Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliveretto Da Fermo, Signor Paolo and Duke Gravina Orsini” (Del modo tenuto dal duca Valentino nell’ ammazzare Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, etc.) (1502)
Discorso sopra la provisione del danaro (1502)
Discorso sopra il riformare lo stato di Firenze (1520)
Dialogues:
Della lingua (1514)
Lyrics:
Poem Decennale primo (1506)
Poem Decennale secondo (1509)
Asino d'oro (1517), poetic adaptation of "The Golden Ass"
Biographies:
“The Life of Castruccio Castracani of Lucca” (Vita di Castruccio Castracani da Lucca) (1520)
Other:
Ritratti delle cose dell' Alemagna (1508-1512)
Ritratti delle cose di Francia (1510)
“On the Art of War” (1519-1520)
Sommario delle cose della citta di Lucca (1520)
History of Florence (1520-1525), multi-volume history of Florence
Frammenti storici (1525)
Plays:
Andria (1517) - translation of Terence's comedy
La Mandragola, comedy (1518)
Clizia (1525), a comedy in prose.
Novels:
Born on May 3, 1469 in Florence, the second son in the family of a notary. Machiavelli's parents, although they belonged to an ancient Tuscan family, were people of very modest means. The boy grew up in the atmosphere of the "golden age" of Florence under the regime of Lorenzo de' Medici. Little is known about Machiavelli's childhood. It appears from his writings that he was a keen observer of the political events of his time; the most significant of them was the invasion of Italy in 1494 by Charles VIII of France, the expulsion of the Medici family from Florence and the establishment of a republic, initially under the control of Girolamo Savonarola.
In 1498, Machiavelli was hired as a secretary in the second chancellery, the College of Ten and the magistracy of the Signoria - posts to which he was elected with constant success until 1512. Machiavelli devoted himself entirely to a thankless and poorly paid service. In 1506, he added to his many responsibilities the work of organizing the Florentine militia (Ordinanza) and the Council of Nine, which controlled its activities, established to a large extent at his insistence. Machiavelli believed that a civilian army should be created that could replace mercenaries, which was one of the reasons for the military weakness of the Italian states. Throughout his service, Machiavelli was used for diplomatic and military assignments in Florentine lands and for collecting information during trips abroad. For Florence, which continued Savonarola's pro-French policy, it was a time of constant crises: Italy was torn apart by internal strife and suffered from foreign invasions.
Machiavelli was close to the head of the republic, the great Gonfaloniere of Florence, Piero Soderini, and although he did not have the power to negotiate or make decisions, the missions he was entrusted with were often delicate and very important. Among them, embassies to several royal courts should be noted. In 1500, Machiavelli arrived at the court of King Louis XII of France to discuss the terms of assistance in continuing the war with rebellious Pisa, which had fallen away from Florence. Twice he was at the court of Cesare Borgia, in Urbino and Imola (1502), to stay informed about the actions of the Duke of Romagna, whose increased power worried the Florentines. In Rome in 1503 he observed the election of a new pope (Julius II), and while at the court of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I in 1507, he discussed the size of the Florentine tribute. He actively participated in many other events of that time.
During this "diplomatic" period of his life, Machiavelli acquired experience and knowledge of political institutions and human psychology, on which - as well as the study of the history of Florence and Ancient Rome - his writings are based. In his reports and letters of that time one can find most of the ideas that he subsequently developed and to which he gave a more refined form. Machiavelli often felt bitter, not so much because of his knowledge of the downside of foreign policy as because of the divisions within Florence itself and its indecisive policies towards the powerful powers.
His own career faltered in 1512 when Florence was defeated by the Holy League formed by Julius II against the French in alliance with Spain. The Medici returned to power and Machiavelli was forced to leave government service. He was followed, imprisoned on charges of plotting against the Medici in 1513, and tortured with rope. In the end, Machiavelli retired to the modest estate of Albergaccio, inherited from his father, in Percussina near San Casciano on the way to Rome. Some time later, when Julius II died and Leo X took his place, the Medici's anger softened. Machiavelli began to visit friends in the city; he took an active part in literary meetings and even cherished the hope of returning to service (in 1520 he received the post of state historiographer, to which he was appointed by the University of Florence).
The shock experienced by Machiavelli after his dismissal and the collapse of the republic, which he served so faithfully and zealously, prompted him to take up his pen. His character did not allow him to remain inactive for long; deprived of the opportunity to engage in his favorite activity - politics, Machiavelli wrote works of significant literary and historical value during this period. The main masterpiece is The Prince (Il Principe), a brilliant and widely known treatise written mainly in 1513 (published posthumously in 1532). Initially, the author entitled the book On the Principalities (De Principatibus) and dedicated it to Giuliano Medici, brother of Leo X, but in 1516 he died, and the dedication was addressed to Lorenzo Medici (1492–1519). Machiavelli's historical work Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livio (Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio) was written in the period 1513–1517. Other works include The Art of War (Dell'arte della guerra, 1521, written in 1519–1520), History of Florence (Istorie fiorentine, written in 1520–1525), two theatrical plays - Mandragora (Mandrag ol a, probably 1518; original title - Commedia di Gallimaco e di Lucrezia) and Clizia (probably in 1524-1525), as well as the short story Belphagor (in manuscript - Tale, written before 1520). He also wrote poetic works. Although there is controversy about the personality of Machiavelli and his motives continue to this day, he is certainly one of the greatest Italian writers.
It is difficult to evaluate the works of Machiavelli, primarily because of the complexity of his personality and the ambiguity of his ideas, which still give rise to the most contradictory interpretations. Before us is an intellectually gifted person, an unusually insightful observer, possessed of rare intuition. He was capable of deep feeling and devotion, exceptionally honest and hardworking, and his writings reveal a love for the joys of life and a lively sense of humor, although usually bitter. And yet the name Machiavelli is often used as a synonym for betrayal, deceit and political immorality.
In part, such assessments are caused by religious reasons, the condemnation of his works by both Protestants and Catholics. The reason was criticism of Christianity in general and the papacy in particular; According to Machiavelli, the papacy undermined military valor and played a negative role, causing the fragmentation and humiliation of Italy. On top of this, his views were often distorted by commentators, and his phrases about the establishment and defense of statehood were taken out of context and quoted in order to reinforce the popular image of Machiavelli as a malicious adviser to princes.
Moreover, The Sovereign was considered his most characteristic, if not his only, work; from this book it is very easy to select passages that clearly prove the author’s approving attitude towards despotism and are in striking contradiction with traditional moral norms. To some extent this can be explained by the fact that the State proposes extraordinary measures in an emergency; however, Machiavelli’s aversion to half-measures, as well as his desire for effective presentation of ideas, also played a role; his contrasts lead to bold and unexpected generalizations. At the same time, he did consider politics to be an art that is independent of morality and religion, at least when it comes to means rather than ends, and he made himself vulnerable to charges of cynicism by trying to find universal rules of political action that were would be based on observation of actual human behavior, rather than speculation about what it should be.
Machiavelli argued that such rules are found in history and confirmed by modern political events. In the dedication to Lorenzo de' Medici at the beginning of The Prince, he writes that the most valuable gift he could give is an understanding of the deeds of great men, acquired by "many years of experience in present affairs and the incessant study of past affairs." Machiavelli uses history to support, with carefully selected examples, the maxims of political action that he formulated from his own experience rather than from historical studies.
The Sovereign is the work of a dogmatist, not an empiricist; still less is it the work of a man applying for office (as was often believed). This is not a cold appeal to despotism, but a book imbued with high feeling (despite the rationality of the presentation), indignation and passion. Machiavelli seeks to show the difference between authoritarian and despotic modes of government. Emotions reach their climax at the end of the treatise; the author appeals to a strong hand, the savior of Italy, a new sovereign capable of creating a powerful state and freeing Italy from the foreign domination of the “barbarians.”
Machiavelli's remarks about the need for ruthless decisions, even if they seem dictated by the political situation of that era, remain relevant and widely debated in our time. Otherwise, his direct contribution to political theory is insignificant, although many of the thinker’s ideas stimulated the development of later theories. The practical influence of his writings on statesmen is also questionable, despite the fact that the latter often relied on Machiavelli’s ideas (often distorting them) about the priority of the interests of the state and the methods that a ruler should use in gaining (acquista) and maintaining (mantiene) power. In fact, Machiavelli was read and quoted by adherents of autocracy; However, in practice, autocrats managed without the ideas of the Italian thinker.
These ideas were of greater importance for Italian nationalists during the era of the Risorgimento (political revival - from the first outbreaks of Carbonarism in the 20s of the 19th century until the unification in 1870) and during the period of fascist rule. Machiavelli was mistakenly seen as the forerunner of the centralized Italian state. However, like most Italians of that time, he was a patriot not of the nation, but of his city-state.
In any case, it is dangerous to attribute to Machiavelli the ideas of other eras and thinkers. The study of his works should begin with the understanding that they arose in the context of the history of Italy, more specifically, the history of Florence during the era of wars of conquest. The Sovereign was intended as a textbook for autocrats, significant for all times. However, when critically examining it, one should not forget about the specific time of writing and the personality of the author. Reading the treatise in this light will help to understand some unclear passages. The fact remains, however, that Machiavelli's reasoning is not always consistent, and many of his apparent contradictions must be recognized as valid. Machiavelli recognizes both human freedom and his “fortune,” a fate with which an energetic and strong person can still somehow fight. On the one hand, the thinker sees in man a hopelessly corrupt creature, and on the other hand, he passionately believes in the ability of a ruler endowed with virtu (perfect personality, valor, fullness of strength, intelligence and will), to free Italy from foreign domination; While defending human dignity, he at the same time provides evidence of the deepest depravity of man.
Brief mention should also be made of the Discourses in which Machiavelli focuses on republican forms of government. The work purports to formulate the eternal laws of political science derived from the study of history, but it cannot be understood without taking into account the indignation that Machiavelli aroused at the political corruption in Florence and the inability to rule of the Italian despots, who presented themselves as the best alternative to chaos, created by their predecessors in power. At the heart of all Machiavelli's works is the dream of a strong state, not necessarily republican, but based on the support of the people and capable of resisting foreign invasion.
The main themes of the History of Florence (eight books of which were presented to Pope Clement VII de' Medici in 1525): the need for general consent to strengthen the state and its inevitable decay with increasing political strife. Machiavelli cites facts described in historical chronicles, but seeks to identify the true causes of historical events, rooted in the psychology of specific people and the conflict of class interests; he needed history in order to learn lessons that he believed would be useful for all times. Machiavelli was apparently the first to propose the concept of historical cycles.
The history of Florence, characterized by a dramatic narrative, tells the history of the city-state from the birth of Italian medieval civilization to the beginning of the French invasions in the late 15th century. This work is imbued with a spirit of patriotism and a determination to find rational rather than supernatural causes of historical events. However, the author belongs to his time, and references to signs and wonders can be found in this work.
Machiavelli's correspondence is extremely valuable; Particularly interesting are the letters he wrote to his friend Francesco Vettori, mainly in 1513–1514, when he was in Rome. These letters contain everything from descriptions of the minutiae of domestic life to bawdy anecdotes and political analysis. The most famous letter is dated December 10, 1513, which depicts an ordinary day in the life of Machiavelli and gives an invaluable explanation of how the idea of the Prince came about. The letters reflect not only the author's ambitions and anxieties, but also the liveliness, humor and sharpness of his thinking.
These qualities are present in all his works, serious and comedic (for example, in Mandrake). Opinions differ in assessing the stage merits of this play (it is still sometimes performed, and not without success) and the evil satire it contains. However, Machiavelli also conveys some of his ideas here - about the success that accompanies determination, and the inevitable collapse that awaits those who hesitate and those who take wishful thinking. Her characters - including one of the most famous simpletons in literature, the deceived Messer Nitsch - are recognizable as typical characters, although they give the impression of the results of original creativity. The comedy is based on living Florentine life, its morals and customs.
The genius of Machiavelli also created the fictional Life of Castruccio Castracani from Lucca, compiled in 1520 and depicting the rise to power of the famous condottiere at the beginning of the 14th century. In 1520, Machiavelli visited Lucca as a trade representative on behalf of Cardinal Lorenzo Strozzi (to whom he dedicated the dialogue On the Art of War) and, as was his custom, studied the political institutions and history of the city. One of the fruits of his stay in Lucca was the Biography, which depicts a merciless ruler and is famous for its romantic presentation of ideas about the art of war. In this small work, the author's style is as sharp and bright as in other works of the writer.
By the time Machiavelli created his main works, humanism in Italy had already passed its peak. The influence of humanists is noticeable in the style of the Sovereign; in this political work we can see the interest, characteristic of the entire Renaissance, not in God, but in man, the individual. However, intellectually and emotionally, Machiavelli was far from the philosophical and religious interests of the humanists, their abstract, essentially medieval approach to politics. Machiavelli's language is different from that of the humanists; the problems he discusses have scarcely occupied humanist thought.
Machiavelli is often compared to his contemporary Francesco Guicciardini (1483–1540), also a diplomat and historian immersed in questions of political theory and practice. Far from aristocratic by birth and temperament, Machiavelli shared many of the basic ideas and emotions of the humanist philosopher. They were both characterized by a sense of catastrophe in Italian history due to the French invasion and indignation at the state of fragmentation that did not allow Italy to resist enslavement. However, the differences and discrepancies between them are also significant. Guicciardini criticized Machiavelli for his persistent calls for modern rulers to follow ancient models; he believed in the role of compromise in politics. Essentially, his views are more realistic and cynical than Machiavelli's.
Machiavelli's hopes for the flourishing of Florence and his own career were deceived. In 1527, after Rome was given over to the Spaniards for plunder, which once again showed the full extent of the fall of Italy, republican rule was restored in Florence, which lasted three years. The dream of Machiavelli, who returned from the front, to receive the position of secretary of the College of Ten did not come true. The new government no longer noticed him. Machiavelli's spirit was broken, his health was undermined, and the thinker's life ended in Florence on June 22, 1527.
